Editing Eswatini (section)

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Eswatini}}
[[File:Eswatini Topography.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Topographic map of Eswatini]]

A small landlocked kingdom with an area of {{convert|17364|km2|abbr=on}}, Eswatini is located at approximately 26°30'S, 31°30'E<ref>{{cite web |author=WorldAtlas.com, Inc |title=Map of Swaziland |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/sz.htm |access-date=29 December 2009}}</ref> and is bordered in the north, west and south by South Africa and by Mozambique in the east. Along the eastern border with Mozambique are the [[Lebombo Mountains]], a mountain ridge at an altitude of around {{convert|600|m}}. The mountains are broken by the [[canyon]]s of three rivers, the [[Ngwavuma River|Ngwavuma]], the [[Maputo River|Great Usutu]] and the [[Mbuluzi River|Mbuluzi]]. The western border, with an average altitude of {{convert|1200|m}}, lies on the edge of an [[escarpment]].

Eswatini is separated into four geographical regions. These run from north to south and are determined by elevation. [[Mbabane]], the capital, is on the [[Highveld]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mbabane history {{!}} Mbabane general information |url=http://www.swazilandhappenings.co.za/mbabanehomepage.htm |access-date=22 January 2021 |website=www.swazilandhappenings.co.za}}</ref> The Middleveld, lying at an average {{convert|700|m}} above sea level, is the most densely populated region of Eswatini with a lower rainfall than the mountains. [[Manzini, Eswatini|Manzini]], the principal commercial and industrial city, is situated in the Middleveld.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} The Lowveld, at around {{convert|250|m}}, is less populated than other areas and presents a typical African bush country of thorn trees and grasslands. Eswatini contains three ecosystems: [[Maputaland coastal forest mosaic]], [[Zambezian and mopane woodlands]], and Drakensberg [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|montane grasslands]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad |display-authors=3|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> The country had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.21/10, ranking it 142nd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M. |display-authors=3 |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Eswatini landscape.jpg|thumb|Landscape in Eswatini]]

===Climate===
{{further|Climate of Eswatini}}
Eswatini is divided into four climatic regions: the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld, and Lubombo plateau. Generally speaking, rain falls mostly during the summer months (December to March), often in the form of thunderstorms.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Swaziland Walking Safari, Swaziland Tours {{!}} Climate {{!}} Mountain Kingdoms|url=https://www.mountainkingdoms.com/destinations/swaziland/climate#:~:text=Eswatini%20is%20defined%20by%20four,taking%20the%20form%20of%20thunderstorms.|access-date=2021-02-17|website=www.mountainkingdoms.com}}</ref> Winter is the [[dry season]]. Annual rainfall is highest on the Highveld in the west, between {{convert|1000|and|2000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. The further east, the less rain, with the Lowveld recording {{convert|500|to|900|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per annum.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} Variations in temperature are also related to the altitude of the different regions. The Highveld temperature is temperate and seldom uncomfortably hot, while the Lowveld may record temperatures around {{convert|40|°C}} in summer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eswatini (Swaziland) Weather, Climate, and geography |url=https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/africa/eswatini/weather-climate-geography/#:~:text=Weather%20and%20climate&text=The%20Lowveld%20has%20a%20warmer,a%20matter%20of%20personal%20preference. |website=World Travel Guide}}</ref>

The average temperatures at Mbabane, according to the season:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
| Spring || September–October || {{convert|18|°C|1}}
|-
| Summer || November–March || {{convert|20|°C}}
|-
| Autumn || April–May || {{convert|17|°C|1}}
|-
| Winter || June–August || {{convert|13|°C|1}}
|} The government of Eswatini has expressed concern that climate change is exacerbating existing social challenges such as poverty, a high HIV prevalence, and food insecurity and will drastically restrict the country's ability to develop, as per Vision 2022.<ref name="www4.unfccc.int">{{cite web|url=https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Eswatini%20First/Eswatini%27s%20INDC.pdf|title=Swaziland's INDC|website=www4.unfccc.int|access-date= 5 March 2020}}</ref> Economically, climate change has already adversely impacted Eswatini. For instance, the 2015–16 drought decreased sugar and soft drink concentrate production export (Eswatini's largest economic export). Many of Eswatini's major exports are raw agricultural products and are therefore vulnerable to a changing climate.<ref name="www4.unfccc.int"/>

=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Eswatini}}
[[File:גרויה שעירה - Grewia villosa.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Grewia villosa]]'']]

Eswatini has a spectrum of formal and informal conservation areas that protect the nation's rich biological diversity. These areas comprise about 5% of the country's land area. Eswatini has over 820 species of vertebrates and over 2,400 species of plants, with many [[Endemism|endemic]] species. This diversity suggests Eswatini is globally important for biodiversity conservation.<ref name="BSAP">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/sz/sz-nbsap-01-en.pdf |title=Swaziland National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP), Final Draft, April 2001 |publisher=Swaziland Environment Authority, Ministry of Tourism, Environment, and Communications }}</ref> Land degradation and conversion to other land uses are the major threats to biodiversity, including plantation agriculture (legal and illegal), bush-clearing, the spread of alien and invasive plants, and unsustainable resource harvesting; major land fragmentation is evident.<ref name="BSAP" />

Eswatini is a signatory to the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ([[CITES]]), and the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change. There are three main government ministries responsible for national biodiversity management: the Eswatini National Trust Commission, the [[Eswatini Environment Authority]], and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. In addition, Big Game Parks, a private entity, is tasked with the management of the Game Act, which controls wildlife and CITES.<ref name="BSAP" />

There are six formal and more than 10 informal protected areas in the country. The formally gazetted areas include: [[Malolotja National Park|Malolotja Nature Reserve]], Mantenga Nature Reserve, [[Mlawula Nature Reserve]], [[Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary]], and [[Mkhaya Game Reserve]], and [[Hlane Royal National Park]]. In addition to these, there are many private and community nature reserves, as well as some with mixed governance structures. These include: Dombeya Game Reserve, [[Mbuluzi Game Reserve]], Shewula Nature Reserve, [[Phophonyane Falls Nature Reserve]], [[Royal Jozini]], IYSIS (Inyoni Yami), [[Ngwempisi]] Wilderness, [[Sibebe]] and others. There are other entities that practice secondary or tertiary conservation, as well as two conservancies: the Mhlosinga Conservancy and the [[Lubombo Conservancy]]. Others include: the Natural History Society of Eswatini and the Eswatini Game Ranchers Association.

From 2014 to 2021, Eswatini participated in the "Strengthening the National Protected Areas System" (SNPAS) project. This project attempted to strengthen conservation outcomes and the national footprint of biodiversity conservation across the country.<ref name="UNDP">{{cite web|url=http://www.sz.undp.org/content/eswatini/en/home/news-centre/2019/biodiversity-and-ecosystems-conservation-framework-for-eswatini-.html |title=Biodiversity and Ecosystems Conservation Framework for Eswatini Launched |publisher=UNDP |date=10 May 2021 |access-date=9 December 2021 }}</ref> In an effort to broaden the spectrum of areas eligible for conservation support (which practice bona-fide conservation management), the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) established a new category for informal, or non-gazetted, conservation areas in 2018. These are now called OECMs, or Other Effective Conservation Measures. The SNPAS Project adopted this OECM terminology and began certifying informal conservation areas in Eswatini in 2021.<ref name="UNDP SNPAS">{{cite web|url=http://www.undpopenplanet.org/projects/Strengthening_the_National_Protected_Areas_System_of_Swaziland/ |title=Strengthening the National Protected Areas System of Swaziland |publisher=UNDP |access-date=9 December 2021 }}</ref>

There are known to be [[List of birds of Eswatini|507 bird species]] in Eswatini, including 11 globally threatened species and four introduced species, and [[List of mammals of Eswatini|107 mammal species]] native to Eswatini, including the critically endangered [[South-central black rhinoceros]] and seven other endangered or vulnerable species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-19 |title=Conservation efforts bring cautious hope for African rhinos - IUCN Red List |url=https://www.iucn.org/news/species/202003/conservation-efforts-bring-cautious-hope-african-rhinos-iucn-red-list |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=IUCN |language=en}}</ref> Eswatini is rich in bird life, including [[white-backed vulture]]s, [[White-headed vulture|white-headed]], [[Lappet-faced vulture|lappet-faced]] and [[Cape vulture]]s, raptors such as [[martial eagle]]s, [[bateleur]]s, and [[long-crested eagle]]s, and the southernmost nesting site of the [[marabou stork]].<ref name="bgp">{{cite web|url=http://www.biggameparks.org/3parks_hlane.html|title=Hlane Royal National Park|work=biggameparks.org|publisher=Big Game Parks|access-date=October 8, 2009|location=Malkerns, Swaziland}}</ref>