Editing Engineering (section)

===Modern era===
[[File:The world's first iron bridge.jpg|thumb|left|253px|The application of the steam engine allowed coke to be substituted for charcoal in [[iron]] making, lowering the cost of iron, which provided engineers with a new material for building bridges. This bridge was made of [[cast iron]], which was soon displaced by less brittle [[wrought iron]] as a structural material.]]
The science of [[classical mechanics]], sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.<ref name="Robinson-Musnon">{{cite book|title=Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencetechnolog00aemu |url-access=registration|last1=Musson|first1=A.E.|last2=Robinson|first2=Eric H.|year=1969|publisher =University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0802016379 }}</ref> With the rise of engineering as a [[profession]] in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the [[mechanic arts]] became incorporated into engineering.

[[Canal]] building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Transportation Revolution, 1815–1860 |last=Taylor|first= George Rogers|year=1969
|publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn= 978-0-87332-101-3}}
</ref>

[[John Smeaton]] was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of [[bridge]]s, canals, [[harbor]]s, and [[lighthouse]]s. He was also a capable [[mechanical engineer]] and an eminent [[physicist]]. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.<ref name="University Of Chicago Press">{{cite book|title=The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry and Invention|last1=Rosen|first1= William|year= 2012 |publisher = University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-72634-2 }}</ref>{{rp|127}}   Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.<ref name="Robinson-Musnon"/>{{rp|69}} Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the [[Newcomen steam engine]]. Smeaton designed the third [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of '[[hydraulic lime]]' (a form of [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern [[cement]], because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of [[Portland cement]].

Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the [[barometer]] and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by [[Evangelista Torricelli]] in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by [[Otto von Guericke]] using the [[Magdeburg hemispheres]] in 1656, laboratory experiments by [[Denis Papin]], who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a [[piston]], which he published in 1707. [[Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester]] published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a [[coffee percolator]]. [[Samuel Morland]], a mathematician and inventor who worked on [[pump]]s, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that [[Thomas Savery]] read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Rhys | title = Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times| publisher = Ayer Publishing| year = 1936 | page = 66 | isbn = 978-0-8369-2167-0}}</ref> Iron merchant [[Thomas Newcomen]], who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.<ref name="University Of Chicago Press"/>{{rp|32}}

[[File:Pan_Am_Boeing_747-121_N732PA_Bidini.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Jumbo Jet]]]]
The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for [[blast furnace]]s lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in [[blast furnace]]s, which enabled the transition from charcoal to [[coke (fuel)|coke]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition |last=Tylecote |first=R.F. |year=  1992|publisher =Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials |location= London|isbn=978-0-901462-88-6}}</ref> These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making [[Wagonway|horse railways]] and iron bridges practical. The [[puddling process]], patented by [[Henry Cort]] in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. [[Hot blast]], patented by [[James Beaumont Neilson]] in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.<ref name="HunterIndustrialPower">{{cite book |title=A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 2: Steam Power |last1=Hunter |first1= Louis C.|year=1985 | publisher =University Press of Virginia|location= Charlottesville}}</ref> New steel making processes, such as the [[Bessemer process]] and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.

One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.

[[File:Gulf Offshore Platform.jpg|thumb|upright|Offshore platform, [[Gulf of Mexico]]]]
The [[Industrial Revolution]] created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several [[machine tools]]. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until [[John Wilkinson (industrialist)|John Wilkinson]] invented his [[John Wilkinson (industrialist)#Boring machine for steam engines|boring machine]], which is considered the first [[machine tool]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Roe | first = Joseph Wickham | title = English and American Tool Builders | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1916 | location = New Haven, Connecticut | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ | lccn = 16011753 | access-date = November 10, 2018 | archive-date = January 26, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210126171157/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ | url-status = live }}</ref> Other machine tools included the [[screw cutting lathe]], [[milling machine]], [[turret lathe]] and the [[Planer (metalworking)|metal planer]]. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing [[interchangeable parts]] lead to [[Mass production|large scale factory production]] by the late 19th century.<ref>{{Hounshell1984}}</ref>

The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cowan |first=Ruth Schwartz |author-link=Ruth Schwartz Cowan |title=A Social History of American Technology |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-504605-2|page=138}}</ref> There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. The first [[PhD]] in engineering (technically, ''applied science and engineering'') awarded in the United States went to [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] at [[Yale University]] in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.<ref>
 {{cite book
  | last = Wheeler
  | first = Lynde Phelps
  | title = Josiah Willard Gibbs&nbsp;– the History of a Great Mind
  | publisher = Ox Bow Press
  | year = 1951
  | isbn = 978-1-881987-11-6}}</ref> In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, [[mining]], mechanical and electrical.<ref name="HunterIndustrialPower" /> There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.<ref>
{{cite book
|title=A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology
 |last=Williams
 |first= Trevor I.
|year= 1982|publisher =Oxford University Press
|location= US
|isbn= 978-0-19-858159-8 |pages=3
}}
</ref> 

The foundations of [[electrical engineering]] in the 1800s included the experiments of [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm]] and others and the invention of the [[electric telegraph]] in 1816 and the [[electric motor]] in 1872. The theoretical work of [[James Clerk Maxwell|James Maxwell]] (see: [[Maxwell's equations]]) and [[Heinrich Hertz]] in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of [[electronics]]. The later inventions of the [[vacuum tube]] and the [[transistor]] further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.<ref name="ECPD Definition on Britannica" />
[[Chemical engineering]] developed in the late nineteenth century.<ref name="ECPD Definition on Britannica" /> Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.<ref name="ECPD Definition on Britannica" /> The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.<ref name="ECPD Definition on Britannica" /> Originally deriving from the manufacture of [[Ceramic|ceramics]] and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Defonseka |first=Chris |title=Polymer Fillers and Stiffening Agents: Applications and Non-traditional Alternatives |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-11-066999-2 |location=Berlin |pages=31 |language=en}}</ref> Modern materials science evolved directly from [[metallurgy]], which itself evolved from the use of fire. Important elements of modern materials science were products of the [[Space Race]]; the understanding and [[engineering]] of the metallic [[Alloy|alloys]], and [[silica]] and [[carbon]] materials, used in building space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as [[Rubber|rubbers]], [[Plastic|plastics]], [[Semiconductor|semiconductors]], and [[Biomaterial|biomaterials]].

[[File:Four solaire 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Odeillo solar furnace|solar furnace at Odeillo]] in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] in [[France]] can reach temperatures up to {{convert|3500|C|F}}.]]

Aeronautical engineering deals with [[aircraft design process]] design while [[aerospace engineering]] is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including [[spacecraft]] design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of [[Sir George Cayley]] has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.<ref name="americana">{{cite encyclopedia | author = Van Every, Kermit E. | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Americana | title = Aeronautical engineering| year = 1986| publisher = Grolier Incorporated| volume =1| pages = 226 }}</ref> Only a [[decade]] after the successful flights by the [[Wright brothers]], there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in [[World War I]]. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining [[theoretical physics]] with experiments.