Editing Edward the Martyr (section)

== Edward's reign ==
=== The "anti-monastic reaction" ===
Edward's succession was followed by what historians sometimes call the "anti-monastic reaction".{{sfnm|1a1=Lapidge|1y=2009|1pp=xx, lxxi, lxxiii|2a1=Miller|2y=2014c|2p=167|3a1=Williams|3y=2003|3p=10}} According to the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', Ælfhere and many other nobles, described by ''ASC D''{{efn|Manuscripts of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' are conventionally labelled ''ASC A'' to ''ASC F''.{{sfn|Whitelock|1979|pp=109–117}} }} as the "adversaries of God", launched attacks on monasteries. His rival Æthelwine was called ''amicus Dei'' (friend of God), and portrayed as the chief defender of the monks, by Byrhtferth,{{sfnm|1a1=Whitelock|1y=1979|1p=229|2a1=Lapidge|2y=2009|2pp=130–131}} who wrote that in Edward's reign:{{blockquote|the commonwealth of the entire realm was shaken; bishops were perplexed, ealdormen were angry, monks were struck with fear, the people were terrified, and the secular clerics were made happy, because their time had come. Abbots are now expelled, together with their monks; clerics are brought in together with their wives; and 'the last error was worse than the first' ... Monks who were formerly accustomed to sit on [[caparison]]ed horses and with their companions to sing the melodious song of [[King David]], could then be seen carting a burden, not being carried like the ancient patriarch on a carriage into Egypt, or walking about with companions and friends, 'without a purse, without shoes'.{{sfn|Lapidge|2009|pp=122–125}}}}

However, most historians are sceptical of the claim that the conflict was between the supporters and opponents of monasticism, and attribute the disturbances to the nobles' personal rivalries and their determination to recover or obtain compensation for lands which Edgar had forced them to give up to monasteries.{{sfnm|1a1=Williams|1y=2004c|2a1=Miller|2y=2014c|2p=168|3a1=Jayakumar|3y=2009|3pp=339–340}} Æthelwine founded Byrhtferth's [[Ramsey Abbey]], but he was remembered at [[Ely Abbey]] for stealing several of their estates.{{sfn|Miller|2014c|p=168}} Ælfhere is said to have disbanded monasteries founded by Æthelwold, but also to have protected Æthelwold's Ely from Æthelwine and been a benefactor of Dunstan's Glastonbury and Æthelwold's Abingdon.{{sfn|Williams|2004c}} Williams comments that "there was more to the seizure of monastic lands than anti-monasticism. In many, perhaps most cases, it was the sharp practice involved in acquiring lands for the reformed houses that was being questioned, as the sellers (who had probably been put under considerable pressure) or their heirs sought to obtain a price closer to the actual market value."{{sfn|Williams|2003|p=10}}

Historians find it very difficult to judge the extent of disorder in Edward's reign in view of the very limited information available. At some point, Ælfhere and Æthelwine appear to have come close to open warfare, but there were no battles.{{sfn|Williams|2003|pp=10–11}} A thegn called Leofsige seized estates at [[Peterborough]], [[Oundle]] and [[Kettering]], causing such disorder that no crops were sown for two years. Leofsige was killed by Æthelwine's brother, Ælfwold, who was then pardoned for the crime by Bishop Æthelwold.{{sfn|Hart|1992|p=151}} The historian George Molyneaux is sceptical of the portrayal of Edward's reign as a time of rampant strife in view of the lack of evidence of fighting.{{sfn|Molyneaux|2015|p=34}}

=== Administration ===
''[[Witan]]s'' (king's councils) met at Kingston upon Thames, perhaps on the occasion of Edward's coronation, at [[Kirtlington]] in [[Oxfordshire]] after Easter 977, and at [[Calne]] in [[Wiltshire]] in the same year. The meeting at Calne was held on an upper storey which collapsed; many leading counsellors were injured and some killed, but Dunstan was unharmed because he was standing on a beam.{{sfnm|1a1=Roach|1y=2013|1pp=67, 240|2a1=Williams|2y=2003|2p=11}} Ælfhere attested first among the ealdormen and Æthelwine second in all of Edward's charters, indicating that they retained their positions from the previous reign as the leading lay magnates.{{sfnm|1a1=Keynes|1y=2008|1p=53|2a1=Hart|2y=2005|3a1=Keynes|3y=2002|3loc=Tables LVI (3 of 3), LVIII}} Edward's first charter was attested by almost all the leading magnates, showing that his rule had been generally accepted. This is the first charter which lists the chronicler [[Æthelweard the Chronicler|Æthelweard]] as an ealdorman and he was presumably appointed by Edward.{{sfn|Roach|2016|pp=68–70}} There appear to have been no ealdormen covering the south of England in the early 970s, perhaps because Edgar's authority was so great that he was able to cover the area personally. After Edward acceded, three ealdormen were appointed to cover the area, Æthelweard in west Wessex, Æthelmær in Hampshire and [[Eadwine of Sussex|Eadwine]] in Sussex and Kent. If stability had depended on Edgar's personal authority, then it is not surprising that the authorities found it so difficult to maintain order after his death.{{sfn|Keynes|2008|p=53}} The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' disapprovingly records the exile of Ealdorman [[Oslac of York]] during Edward's reign, but the circumstances are unknown. Few other events are recorded during his reign: there was a severe famine in 976, Bishop Sideman died in 977,{{sfnm|1a1=Williams|1y=2003|1p=11|2a1=Whitelock|2y=1979|2pp=229–230}} and in 978 Dunstan purchased land near [[Hendon]] in [[Middlesex]] from Edward.{{sfnm|1a1=Keynes|1y=2005|1p=57|2a1=Charter S 1450}}

=== Charters ===
The historian [[Simon Keynes]] sees a [[diplomatic]] tradition which extends from the charters late in Edgar's reign to early in Æthelred's, but excluding the intervening "slightly anomalous" charters of Edward. Five charters survive which purport to date to the three years and nine months of Edward's reign, a low number as the average in the period was four to five a year. The authenticity of Charters S 828 and S 829 is disputed. Keynes says that they are fraudulent, but have witness lists which are probably based on genuine texts.{{sfnm|1a1=Keynes|1y=1980|1p=84 and n. 1|2a1=Keynes|2y=2002|2loc=Table LVIII|3a1=Hart|3y=1975|3pp=26–27}} The editor of these charters, Susan Kelly, describes them as "very difficult documents", and thinks that they may be genuine. They both appear to have been drawn up at the same time by the same careless draftsman during or close to Edward's reign. S 828 is a grant of thirteen [[Hide (unit)|hides]] of land at [[Kingston Bagpuize]] in [[Berkshire]] by King Edward to Bishop [[Ælfstan]], probably of [[Bishop of Ramsbury (ancient)|Ramsbury]]. S 829 grants seven hides in the same village to [[Abingdon Abbey]]. The boundary clause is the same in both charters, perhaps because the bishop and abbey held different scattered units within the estate.{{sfnm|1a1=Kelly|1y=2001|1pp=454–456|2a1=Charter S 828|3a1=Charter S 829}} Charter S 831 from the [[Old Minster, Winchester]], is probably authentic and is based on one of 941. It is a grant by Edward to his minister Ælfric of land at [[Wylye]] in [[Wiltshire]].{{sfnm|1a1=Keynes|1y=1980|1p=84 n. 1|2a1=Hart|2y=1975|2p=27 n. 1|3a1=Charter S 831}} Charter S 832 is a large grant of land in Cornwall by Edward to Ealdorman Æthelweard.{{sfnm|1a1=Whitelock|1y=1979|1pp=566–567 (no. 115, translation of charter)|2a1=Charter S 832}} It is closely related to Charter S 830, a grant of land at [[Cheriton Bishop]] in Devon by Edward to his "faithful vassal" (''fideli vasallo'') Ælfsige. Both charters are from the [[Exeter]] archive but probably written at [[Crediton]], and Hart doubts whether they are genuine in their present form.{{sfnm|1a1=Charter S 830|2a1=Hart|2y=1975|2pp=26–27, n. 4|3a1=Chaplais|3y=1966|3pp=15–16}}

=== Coinage ===
[[File:EdwardMartyr.gif|thumb|[[Obverse and reverse|Obverse]] of a penny of Edward the Martyr produced at [[Stamford, Lincolnshire|Stamford]] by the coiner Wulfgar{{sfn|Naismith|2017|pp=732–733 (coin 1777)}}]]

The only coin in common use in late Anglo-Saxon England was the silver [[History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)|penny]].{{sfn|Naismith|2021|p=386}} Until late in Edgar's reign, pennies produced by mints in different towns varied in design, weight and [[fineness]] (silver content). In the early 970s, he brought in his reform coinage, with a single design and much greater uniformity of weight and fineness. The coins, with a design called the ''Small Cross'' type, had a left-facing bust of the King on the [[obverse]] surrounded by a circle with the King's name (+EADGAR REX ANGLOR[UM]) around the edge. The reverse had a small cross in the centre with the moneyer's name and mint-place around the edge. Edgar's reform design was the sole coin type produced during Edward's reign, and it was replaced early in Æthelred's reign.{{sfn|Naismith|2017|pp=260–261, 732–733}}

Edward's coins were on average slightly lighter than those of Edgar and heavier than those of Æthelred.{{sfn|Naismith|2017|p=249}} The fineness was high and uniform following Edgar's reform at 96%, and this was maintained under Edward apart from a few slightly less fine coins produced in Lincoln and York. After Edward's death, fineness became more variable.{{sfn|Naismith|2017|p=252}} During Edgar's reign, dies for coins were almost all cut at one centre, probably [[Winchester]], and distributed from there to other mints across the kingdom. Under Edward, the centre supplied a far smaller number of mints and it was supplemented by regional die-cutting centres. This may have been due to the difficult political situation in his reign.{{sfn|Naismith|2017|p=261}}