Editing Dome of the Rock (section)

==History==
===Pre-Islamic background===
{{Main|Temple Mount|Herod's Temple|Aelia Capitolina}}
[[File:Second Temple.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Reconstruction of [[Herod's Temple]] as seen from the east ([[Holyland Model of Jerusalem]], 1966)]]

The Dome of the Rock is situated in the center of the Temple Mount, the site of [[Solomon's Temple]] and the [[Second Temple|Second Jewish Temple]], which had been greatly expanded under [[Herod the Great]] in the 1st century BCE. Herod's Temple was destroyed in 70 CE by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], and after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] in 135 CE, a Roman temple to {{lang|la|[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre#Connection to Roman temple|Jupiter Capitolinus]]}} was built at the site by Emperor [[Hadrian]].<ref>Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aelia Capitolina". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 256. Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. p. 29.</ref>

Jerusalem was ruled by the [[Byzantine Empire]] throughout the 4th to 6th centuries. During this time, [[Christian pilgrimage]] to Jerusalem began to develop.<ref>Davidson, Linda Kay and David Martin Gitlitz [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVYkrNhPMQkC&pg=PP274 ''Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland : an Encyclopedia''] Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, Inc, Santa Barbara, CA 2002, p. 274.</ref> The [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] was built under [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] in the 320s, but the Temple Mount was left undeveloped after a failed project of restoration of the Jewish Temple under Emperor [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]].<ref>"Julian thought to rebuild at an extravagant expense the proud Temple once at Jerusalem, and committed this task to [[Alypius of Antioch]]. Alypius set vigorously to work, and was seconded by the governor of the province, when fearful balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, continued their attacks, till the workmen, after repeated scorchings, could approach no more: and he gave up the attempt." [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'', 23.1.2–3.</ref>

In 638 CE, Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]],<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Dan Bahat]]|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha|title=The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem|year=1996|isbn=9789652203489|page=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedatlas00baha/page/n61 71]|publisher=Carta |url-access=limited}}</ref> second [[Caliphate|Caliph]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Umar was advised by [[Ka'b al-Ahbar]], a Jewish rabbi who converted to Islam,<ref>[http://www.alsadiqin.org/en/index.php?title=Yakub_of_Syria_(Ka'b_al-Ahbar)_Last_Jewish_Attempt_at_Islamic_Leadership Yakub of Syria (Ka'b al-Ahbar) Last Jewish Attempt at Islamic Leadership] Committee for Historical Research in Islam and Judaism, © 2004–2012, accessed July 2013. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513011205/http://www.alsadiqin.org/en/index.php?title=Yakub_of_Syria_%28Ka%27b_al-Ahbar%29_Last_Jewish_Attempt_at_Islamic_Leadership|date=13 May 2015}} "He continued to follow Rabbinic tradition such that later Islamic historians questioned whether he ever 'converted' to Islam."</ref> that the site is identical with the site of the former Jewish Temples in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cohen|first=Hillel|date=2017-01-01|title=The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa in Zionist and Palestinian National Consciousness|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/isr.2017.320102|journal=Israel Studies Review|volume=32|issue=1|pages=1–19|doi=10.3167/isr.2017.320102|issn=2159-0370|quote=The encounter between Jews and Muslims on the Temple Mount/al-Aqsa began at the dawn of Islam and continues to this day. It began with a mixture of cooperation and competition; a Jewish convert to Islam, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, guided Caliph Umar to the site of the Temple.}}</ref> Among the first [[Muslims]], Jerusalem was referred to as {{transliteration|ar|Madinat bayt al-Maqdis}} ('City of the Temple').<ref>Ben-Dov, M. ''Historical Atlas of Jerusalem''. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171</ref>

===Umayyads===
{{see also|History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes}}
====Original construction====
The initial octagonal structure of the Dome of the Rock and its round wooden dome had basically the same shape as it does today.<ref name=BRIT>{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030854/Dome-of-the-Rock |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |title= Dome of the Rock |access-date= 4 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080615131142/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030854/Dome-of-the-Rock |archive-date= 15 June 2008 |url-status= live }}</ref> It was built by the order of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] ({{reign|685|705}}).{{sfn|Elad|1999|p=45}} According to [[Sibt ibn al-Jawzi]] (1185–1256), construction started in 685/6, while [[al-Suyuti]] (1445–1505) holds that its commencement year was 688.{{sfn|Elad|1999|p=44–45, notes 98–99}} A dedicatory inscription in [[Kufic]] script is preserved inside the dome. The date is recorded as [[Hijri year|AH]] 72 (691/2 CE), the year most historians believe the construction of the original Dome was completed.{{sfn|Necipoğlu|2008|p=22}} An alternative interpretation of the inscription claims that it indicates the year when construction started.<ref name="Blair">Sheila Blair, "What Is The Date Of The Dome Of The Rock?" in J. Raby & J. Johns (ed.), "Bayt Al-Maqdis: 'Abd al-Malik's Jerusalem", 1992, Part 1, Oxford University Press: Oxford (UK), pp. 59-87.</ref> In this inscription, the name of "al-Malik" was removed and replaced by the name of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] caliph [[al-Ma'mun]] ({{reign|813|833}}). This alteration of the original inscription was first noted by [[Melchior de Vogüé]] in 1864.{{sfn|Vogüé|1864|p=[https://archive.org/stream/letempledejrusal00vogm#page/85/mode/1up 85]}} Some scholars have suggested that the dome was added to an existing building, built either by [[Muawiyah I]] ({{reign|661|680}}),<ref>Oleg Grabar: ''The Meaning of the Dome of the Rock.''</ref> or indeed a Byzantine building dating to before the Muslim conquest, built under [[Heraclius]] ({{reign|610|641}}).<ref>{{cite journal |last= Busse |first= Heribert |year= 1991 |title= Zur Geschichte und Deutung der frühislamischen Ḥarambauten in Jerusalem |language= de |journal= Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins |volume= 107 |pages= 144–154 |jstor= 27931418}}</ref>

The Dome of the Rock's architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces.<ref name="avner43" /> The supervisor and engineer in charge of the project were [[Raja ibn Haywa]], Yazid ibn Salam, and the latter's son Baha.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=92}}<ref name="avner43" /><ref name="EttinghausenGrabarJenkins20">{{cite book |author1= Richard Ettinghausen |author2= Oleg Grabar |author3= Marilyn Jenkins |title= Islamic Art and Architecture 650–1250 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=l1uWZAzN_VcC |year= 2001 |publisher= Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-08869-4 |page= 20}}</ref> Raja was a Muslim theologian and native of [[Beisan]], and Yazid and Baha were {{transliteration|ar|[[mawla|mawali]]}} (non-Arab, Muslim converts; clients) of Abd al-Malik from Jerusalem. Abd al-Malik was represented in the supervision of the construction by his son [[Sa'id al-Khayr]].{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=92}} The Caliph employed expert works from across his domain, at the time restricted to [[Bilad al-Sham|Syria]] and [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]],{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=92}} who were presumably Christians.<ref name="EttinghausenGrabarJenkins20"/> Construction cost was reportedly seven times the yearly tax income of Egypt.{{sfn|Lassner|2006|p=176}} The historian [[K. A. C. Creswell]] noted that those who built the shrine used the measurements of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]. The diameter of the dome of the shrine is {{cvt|20.20|m|ft}} and its height {{cvt|20.48|m|ft}}, while the diameter of the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is {{cvt|20.90|m|ft}} and its height {{cvt|21.05|m|ft}}.

====Motivations for construction====
Narratives by the medieval sources about Abd al-Malik's motivations in building the Dome of the Rock vary.{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=299}} At the time of its construction, the Caliph was engaged in war with Christian Byzantium and its [[Mardaites|Syrian Christian allies]] on the one hand and with the rival caliph [[Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr]], who controlled [[Mecca]], the annual destination of Muslim pilgrimage, on the other hand.{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=299}}{{sfn|Johns|2003|pp=425–426}} Thus, one series of explanations was that Abd al-Malik intended for the Dome of the Rock to be a religious monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the common [[Abrahamic]] religious setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity.{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=299}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=60}} The historian [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]] has argued that the Dome of the Rock was intended to compete with the many fine buildings of worship of other religions: "The very form of a rotunda, given to the {{transliteration|ar|Qubbat as-Sakhra}}, although it was foreign to Islam, was destined to rival the many Christian domes"<ref name=SDG>{{cite journal |last= Goitein |first= Shelomo Dov |author-link= Shelomo Dov Goitein |year= 1950 |title= The historical background of the erection of the Dome of the Rock |journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume= 70 |issue= 2 |pages= 104–108 |doi= 10.2307/595539 |jstor= 595539 }}</ref> - and more specifically, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, according to others.<ref name= Sonn229>{{cite book |last1= Ahmed |first1=A.S. |last2= Sonn |first2=T. |title= The SAGE Handbook of Islamic Studies |publisher= SAGE Publications |year= 2010 |pages= 229–230 |quote= Questions of visual domination and conversion were among the important factors in the construction of the oldest surviving Islamic monument, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. |isbn=978-1-4739-7168-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qihRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT229}}</ref>

The other main explanation holds that Abd al-Malik, in the heat of the war with Ibn al-Zubayr, sought to build the structure to divert the focus of the Muslims in his realm from the Ka'aba in Mecca, where Ibn al-Zubayr would publicly condemn the Umayyads during the annual pilgrimage to the sanctuary.{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=299}}{{sfn|Johns|2003|pp=425–426}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=60}} Though most modern historians dismiss the latter account as a product of anti-Umayyad propaganda in the traditional Muslim sources and doubt that Abd al-Malik would attempt to alter the sacred Muslim requirement of fulfilling the pilgrimage to the Ka'aba, other historians concede that this cannot be conclusively dismissed.{{sfn|Grabar|1986|p=299}}{{sfn|Johns|2003|pp=425–426}}{{sfn|Hawting|2000|p=60}}

===Abbasids and Fatimids===
The building was severely damaged by earthquakes in 808 and again in 846.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Amiran |first1= D.H.K. |last2= Arieh |first2= E. |last3= Turcotte |first3= T. |year=1994 |title= Earthquakes in Israel and adjacent areas: macroseismic observations since 100 B.C.E. |journal= Israel Exploration Journal |volume=44 |issue=3/4 |pages= 260–305 [267] |jstor= 27926357 }}</ref> The dome collapsed in an earthquake in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–1023. The mosaics on the drum were repaired in 1027–1028.{{sfn|Necipoğlu|2008|p=31}} The [[1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake|earthquake of 1033]] resulted in the introduction of wooden beams to enforce the dome.<ref name= archpark>{{cite web |title=The Earthquake of 1033 CE |url=http://www.archpark.org.il/article.asp?id=245 |website=archpark.org.il |publisher=The Jerusalem Archaeological Park |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526112427/http://www.archpark.org.il/article.asp?id=245 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Crusaders===
{{Main|Templum Domini}}
[[File:Seal of Templars.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the {{lang|la|Templum Domini}} on the reverse side of the seal of the Knights Templar]]

For centuries Christian pilgrims were able to come and experience the Temple Mount, but escalating violence against pilgrims to Jerusalem ([[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], who ordered the destruction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Holy Sepulchre]], was an example) resulted in the [[Crusades]].<ref>Stark, Rodney. ''God's Battalions; a Case for the Crusades''. HarperCollins, NY, 2009, pp. 84–85.</ref> The Crusaders [[siege of Jerusalem (1099)|captured Jerusalem]] in 1099 and the Dome of the Rock was given to the [[Augustinians]], who turned it into a church, while the nearby Al-Aqsa main prayer hall or [[Qibli Mosque]] first became a royal palace for a while, and then for much of the 12th century the headquarters of the [[Knights Templar]]. The Templars, active from {{circa|1119}}, identified the Dome of the Rock as the site of the [[Temple of Solomon]].{{clarify|reason= The Crusaders called al-Aqsa {{lang|la|Templum Solomonis}} and the Dome of the Rock {{lang|la|Templum Domini}}. This apparent contradiction with what's stated here must be dealt with.|date=April 2023}} The {{lang|la|[[Templum Domini]]}}, as they called the Dome of the Rock, featured on the official [[Knights Templar Seal|seals]] of the Order's Grand Masters (such as [[Everard des Barres]] and [[Renaud de Vichiers]]), and soon became the architectural model for [[Round church|round Templar churches]] across Europe.<ref>''The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance,'' Jacob Burckhardt, Peter Murray, James C. Palmes, University of Chicago Press, 1986, p. 81</ref>

===Ayyubids and Mamluks===
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2019}}
Jerusalem was recaptured by [[Saladin]] on 2 October 1187, and the Dome of the Rock was reconsecrated as a Muslim shrine. The cross on top of the dome was replaced by a [[crescent]], and a wooden screen was placed around the rock below. Saladin's nephew [[Al-Mu'azzam Isa|al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Isa]] carried out other restorations within the building, and added the porch to the Jami'a Al-Aqsa.

The Dome of the Rock was the focus of extensive royal patronage by the sultans during the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] period, which lasted from 1260 until 1516.

===Ottoman period (1517–1917)===
During the [[Ottoman period]], the reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] ({{Reign|1520|1566}}) brought Ottoman dynastic patronage to the city, around the same time that the sultan and his wife, [[Roxelana|Haseki Hürrem Sultan (Roxelana)]], were also commissioning works in the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|pp=225, 278}}{{Sfn|Grabar|2006|p=191}} Suleiman initiated a major renovation of the Dome of the Rock. The most visible legacy of this work was the covering of the exterior with [[Ottoman architectural decoration|Ottoman-style tiles]], which replaced the old Umayyad mosaics.<ref name=":0" /> This was likely part of an effort to impose a visibly Ottoman mark on this major Islamic holy site.{{Sfn|Hillenbrand|2000|p=|pp=2, 8}} Inscriptions on the tiles provide the dates 952 AH (1545–6 CE) and 959 AH (1552 CE), but work continued until the end of Suleiman's reign, if not later.<ref name=":0" /> Documents show repairs were still incomplete by the time of [[Murad III]] ({{Reign|1574|1595}}) and the latter can probably be credited with finishing this work, which included repairs to the lead of the dome.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=291, 485 (see note 18)}} 

The tiles seem to have been fabricated locally rather than at centers like [[İznik|Iznik]] (famous for its production of [[Iznik pottery]] at this time), although there does not appear to have been a sophisticated ceramic production center in the region.<ref name=":0" /> [[Robert Hillenbrand]] remarks that the workshops that produced the tiles must have been dedicated to this project alone, because there is no evidence that similar tilework was produced for other monuments in Jerusalem during this period.{{Sfn|Hillenbrand|2000|p=21}} The name of one of the craftsmen is recorded in an inscription as Abdallah of [[Tabriz]].<ref name=":0" /> This may indicate that the tiles were commissioned from a workshop of Iranian craftsmen from Tabriz who are thought to have produced many earlier Ottoman tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |date=1990 |title=From International Timurid to Ottoman: A Change of Taste in Sixteenth-Century Ceramic Tiles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523126 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=7 |pages=137 |doi=10.2307/1523126 |jstor=1523126 |issn=0732-2992}}</ref>

The [[Dome of the Chain]], a free-standing structure next to the Dome of the Rock, was also renovated as part of Suleiman's project, in 1561–2.{{Sfn|Hillenbrand|2000|p=8}} Also nearby, the Ottomans built the [[Dome of the Prophet]] in its current form sometime in the 16th or 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pruitt |first=Jennifer A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wE6_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |title=Building the Caliphate: Construction, Destruction, and Sectarian Identity in Early Fatimid Architecture |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-300-24682-7 |pages=147 |language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2008|p=99 (see note 200 for related discussion)}}

Further restorations to the building are recorded in 1720–1721, 1742,1754, 1780, 1817–1818, and 1853.{{Sfn|Grabar|2006|p=200}} In another major restoration project undertaken in 1874–1875 during the reign of the Ottoman [[Abdülaziz|Sultan Abdülaziz]], all the tiles on the west and southwest walls of the octagonal part of the building were removed and replaced by copies that had been made in Turkey.{{sfn|Clermont-Ganneau|1899|p=[https://archive.org/stream/archaeologicalre01cler#page/179/mode/1up 179]}}<ref name=laurent1993>{{cite book |last1= St. Laurent |first1= Beatrice |last2= Riedlmayer |first2= András |year= 1993 |chapter= Restorations of Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock and their political significance, 1537–1928 |editor-last= Necipoğlu |editor-first= Gülru |title= Muqarnas |volume= 10: Essays in Honor of Oleg Grabar |pages= 76–84 |publisher= Brill |doi= 10.2307/1523174 |place= Leiden |jstor= 1523174 |chapter-url= https://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3032/original/dpt0832.pdf?1384770145 |access-date= 23 March 2017 |archive-date= 24 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170324083738/https://archnet.org/system/publications/contents/3032/original/dpt0832.pdf?1384770145 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Jérusalem, esplanade du Temple de Salomon, Dôme du Rocher.jpg|The first-ever photograph of the building, 1842–1844
File:Dome of the Rock, from Governor's House, Francis Bedford 1862.jpg|View from the north, [[Francis Bedford (photographer)|Francis Bedford]] (1862)
File:Dome of the Rock, West Front, Francis Bedford 1862.jpg|West front in 1862. By this date many of the 16th century tiles were missing.
File:MosqueOfOmar1914.jpg|Interior showing mosaic decoration (1914)
File:Israel-2013-Jerusalem-Temple Mount-Dome of the Rock-Detail 01.jpg|Tiled façade (2013)
File:Inside the Dome of the Rock.jpg|Interior showing rock (1915)
</gallery>

===British Mandate===
[[File:Jerusalem Dome Rock.JPG|thumb|1920s photograph]]

[[Haj Amin al-Husseini]], appointed Grand Mufti by the British in 1917, along with [[Yaqub al-Ghusayn]], implemented the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and the [[Qibli Mosque|Jami Al-Aqsa]] in Jerusalem.

Parts of the Dome of the Rock collapsed during the 11 July [[1927 Jericho earthquake|1927 earthquake]], and the walls were left badly cracked,<ref>{{cite web |author= Palestine Square |title= And the Land Lurched Forth: Remembering the 1927 Jericho Earthquake |date= 11 July 2016 |publisher= Institute for Palestine Studies (IPS) |url= https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/232270 |access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref> damaging many of the repairs that had taken place over previous years.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

===Jordanian rule===
In 1955, an extensive program of renovation was begun by the government of [[Jordan]], with funds supplied by Arab governments and Turkey. The work included replacement of large numbers of tiles dating back to the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, which had become dislodged by heavy rain. In 1965, as part of this restoration, the dome was covered with a durable [[aluminium bronze]] alloy made in Italy that replaced the lead exterior. Before 1959, the dome was covered in blackened [[lead]]. In the course of substantial restoration carried out from 1959 to 1962, the lead was replaced by aluminum-bronze plates covered with [[gold leaf]].

===Israeli rule===
[[File:Cúpula de la Roca (45298221951).jpg|thumb|The Dome of the Rock in 2018]]

A few hours after the [[Israeli flag]] was hoisted over the Dome of the Rock in 1967 during the [[Six-Day War]], Israelis lowered it on the orders of [[Moshe Dayan]] and invested [[Jerusalem Waqf|the Muslim {{transliteration|ar|waqf}}]] (religious trust) with the authority to manage the Temple Mount in order to "keep the peace".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.org/0111/abstracts/letter.html |title=Letter from Jerusalem: A Fight Over Sacred Turf by Sandra Scham |publisher=Archaeology.org |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119185648/http://www.archaeology.org/0111/abstracts/letter.html |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1993, the golden dome covering was refurbished following a donation of US$8.25{{nbsp}}million by King [[Hussein of Jordan]], who sold one of his houses in London to fund the {{convert|80|kg}} of gold required.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laurent|first1=Beatrice St.|last2=Riedlmayer|first2=Andras|date=1993|title=Restorations of Jerusalem and the Dome of the Rock and Their Political Significance, 1537-1928|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1523174|journal=Muqarnas|volume=10|pages=76–84|doi=10.2307/1523174|jstor=1523174 |issn=0732-2992}}</ref>