Editing Demosthenes (section)

==Career==
[[File:He lefts assembly, hiding his face in his cloak.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Illustration by [[Walter Crane]] of Demosthenes leaving the Assembly in shame after his first failure at public speaking, as described by Plutarch in his ''Life of Demosthenes'']]

===Legal career===
To make his living, Demosthenes became a professional litigant, both as a "[[Logographer (legal)|logographer]]" ({{Lang|grc|λογογράφος}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|logographos}}), writing speeches for use in private legal suits, and as an advocate ({{Lang|grc|[[wikt:συνήγορος|συνήγορος]]}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|sunégoros}}) speaking on another's behalf. He seems to have been able to manage any kind of case, adapting his skills to almost any client, including wealthy and powerful men. It is not unlikely that he became a teacher of rhetoric and that he brought pupils into court with him. However, though he probably continued writing speeches throughout his career,{{Ref label|E|e|none}} he stopped working as an advocate once he entered the political arena.<ref>Demosthenes, ''Against Zenothemis'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0076%3Aspeech%3D32%3Asection%3D32 32] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520110322/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0076%3Aspeech%3D32%3Asection%3D32 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* G. Kennedy, ''Greek Literature'', 514.</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "If you feel bound to act in the spirit of that dignity, whenever you come into court to give judgement on public causes, you must bethink yourselves that with his staff and his badge every one of you receives in trust the ancient pride of Athens."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''On the Crown'', 210)—The orator's defence of the honour of the courts was in contrast to the improper actions of which Aeschines accused him.
|}

Judicial oratory had become a significant literary genre by the second half of the fifth century, as represented in the speeches of Demosthenes' predecessors, [[Antiphon (person)|Antiphon]] and [[Andocides]]. Logographers were a unique aspect of the Athenian justice system: evidence for a case was compiled by a magistrate in a preliminary hearing and litigants could present it as they pleased within set speeches; however, witnesses and documents were popularly mistrusted (since they could be secured by force or bribery), there was little cross-examination during the trial, there were no instructions to the jury from a judge, no conferencing between jurists before voting, the juries were huge (typically between 201 and 501 members), cases depended largely on questions of probable motive, and notions of natural justice were felt to take precedence over written law—conditions that favoured artfully constructed speeches.<ref>G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 498–500<br />* H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On The Crown'', 263 (note 275).</ref>

Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there was not always a clear distinction between "private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes to embark on his political career.<ref>J Vince, ''Demosthenes Orations'', Intro. xii.</ref> An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabled him to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. It also left him open to allegations of malpractice. Thus for example Aeschines accused Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients' arguments to their opponents; in particular, that he wrote a speech for Phormion (350 BC), a wealthy banker, and then communicated it to Apollodorus, who was bringing a [[capital punishment|capital charge]] against Phormion.<ref name="AischIII173">Aeschines, ''Against Ctesiphon'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D173 173] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520112051/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D173 |date=20 May 2012 }}; Aeschines, ''The Speech on the Embassy'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D165 165.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520143146/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D165 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> Plutarch much later supported this accusation, stating that Demosthenes "was thought to have acted dishonourably"<ref name="Pl15">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 15.</ref> and he also accused Demosthenes of writing speeches for both sides. It has often been argued that the deception, if there was one, involved a political ''[[quid pro quo]]'', whereby Apollodorus secretly pledged support for unpopular reforms that Demosthenes was pursuing in the greater, public interest<ref>G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 516.</ref> (i.e. the diversion of [[Theorica|Theoric Funds]] to military purposes).

===Early political activity===
{{See also|On the Navy Boards|For the Megalopolitans|On the Liberty of the Rhodians}}
Demosthenes was admitted to his {{Lang|grc-Latn|dêmos}} ({{Lang|grc|δῆμος}}) as a citizen with full rights probably in 366&nbsp;BC, and he soon demonstrated an interest in politics.<ref name=Bad16 /> In 363 and 359&nbsp;BC, he assumed the office of the [[trierarch]], being responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a [[trireme]].<ref>A. W. Pickard, ''Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom'', xiv–xv.</ref> He was among the first ever volunteer trierarchs in 357&nbsp;BC, sharing the expenses of a ship called ''Dawn'', for which the public inscription still survives.<ref>Packard Humanities Institute, [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3834?&bookid=5&location=7 ''IG'' Π<sup>2</sup> 1612.301-10] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916182936/http://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/3834?&bookid=5&location=7 |date=16 September 2017 }}<br />* H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On the Crown'', 167.</ref> In 348&nbsp;BC, he became a [[choregos (ancient Greece)|choregos]], paying the expenses of a [[Ancient Greek theatre|theatrical production]].<ref name="Usher226">S. Usher, ''Greek Oratory'', 226.</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "While the vessel is safe, whether it be a large or a small one, then is the time for sailor and helmsman and everyone in his turn to show his zeal and to take care that it is not capsized by anyone's malice or inadvertence; but when the sea has overwhelmed it, zeal is useless."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''Third Philippic'', 69)—The orator warned his countrymen of the disasters Athens would suffer, if they continued to remain idle and indifferent to the challenges of their times.
|}
Between 355 and 351&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes continued practising law privately while he was becoming increasingly interested in public affairs. During this period, he wrote ''[[Against Androtion]]'' and ''[[Against Leptines]]'', two fierce attacks on individuals who attempted to repeal certain tax exemptions.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 177–178.</ref> In ''[[Against Timocrates]]'' and ''Against Aristocrates'', he advocated eliminating corruption.<ref>E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 29–30.</ref> All these speeches, which offer early glimpses of his general principles on foreign policy, such as the importance of the navy, of alliances and of national honour,<ref name="Romilly116-117">J. De Romilly, ''A Short History of Greek Literature'', 116–117.</ref> are prosecutions ({{Lang|grc|γραφὴ παρανόμων}}'','' {{Lang|grc-Latn|[[graphē paranómōn]]}}) against individuals accused of illegally proposing legislative texts.<ref>D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 7 (''pr.'').</ref>

In Demosthenes' time, different political goals developed around personalities. Instead of electioneering, Athenian politicians used litigation and defamation to remove rivals from government processes. Often they indicted each other for breaches of the statute laws (''{{Lang|grc-Latn|graphē paranómōn}}''), but accusations of bribery and corruption were ubiquitous in all cases, being part of the political dialogue. The orators often resorted to "character assassination" tactics ({{Lang|grc|δῐᾰβολή}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|diabolḗ}}; {{Lang|grc|λοιδορία}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|loidoría}}), both in the courts and in the Assembly. The rancorous and often hilariously exaggerated accusations, satirised by [[Old Comedy]], were sustained by innuendo, inferences about motives, and a complete absence of proof; as J. H. Vince states "there was no room for chivalry in Athenian political life".<ref>E. M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", 117–118; J. H. Vince, ''Demosthenes Orations'', I, Intro. xii; N. Worman, "Insult and Oral Excess", 1–2.</ref> Such rivalry enabled the ''demos'' ("citizen-body") to reign supreme as judge, jury and executioner.<ref>H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On The Crown'', 9, 22.</ref> Demosthenes was to become fully engaged in this kind of litigation and he was also to be instrumental in developing the power of the [[Areopagus]] to indict individuals for treason, invoked in the ''ekklesia'' by a process called {{Lang|grc|ἀπόφασις}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|apóphasis}}).<ref>H. Yunis, ''Demosthenes: On The Crown'', 187.</ref>

In 354&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes delivered his first political oration, ''On the Navy'', in which he espoused moderation and proposed the reform of the ''[[symmoria]]i'' (boards) as a source of funding for the Athenian fleet.<ref name="Tsatsos88">E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 29–30; K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 88.</ref> In 352&nbsp;BC, he delivered ''For the Megalopolitans'' and, in 351&nbsp;BC, ''On the Liberty of the Rhodians.'' In both speeches he opposed [[Eubulus (statesman)|Eubulus]], the most powerful Athenian statesman of the period 355 to 342&nbsp;BC. The latter was no pacifist but came to eschew a policy of aggressive interventionism in the internal affairs of the other Greek cities.<ref>E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174–175.</ref> Contrary to Eubulus' policy, Demosthenes called for an alliance with [[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] against [[Sparta]] or [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and for supporting the democratic faction of the Rhodians in their internal strife.<ref>E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 180–183.</ref> His arguments revealed his desire to articulate Athens' needs and interests through a more activist foreign policy, wherever opportunity might provide.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 180, 183 (note 91); T. N. Habinek, ''Ancient Rhetoric and Oratory'', 21; D. Phillips, ''Athenian Political Oratory'', 72.</ref>

Although his early orations were unsuccessful and reveal a lack of real conviction and of coherent strategic and political prioritisation,<ref>E. Badian, "The Road to Prominence", 36.</ref> Demosthenes established himself as an important political personality and broke with Eubulus' faction, of which a prominent member was Aeschines.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 181–182.</ref> He thus laid the foundations for his future political successes and for becoming the leader of his own "party" (the issue of whether the modern concept of political parties can be applied in the [[Athenian democracy]] is hotly disputed among modern scholars).<ref>M.H. Hansen, ''The Athenian Democracy'', 177.</ref>

===Confrontation with Philip II===
====First Philippic and the Olynthiacs (351–349&nbsp;BC)====
{{further|First Philippic|Olynthiacs}}
[[File:Philip II of Macedon CdM.jpg|right|thumb|Philip II of [[Macedon]]: victory medal ({{Lang|grc-Latn|nikétérion|size=90%}}) struck in [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], c.&nbsp;2nd century&nbsp;BC ([[Cabinet des Médailles]], Paris).]]
Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357&nbsp;BC, when Philip seized [[Amphipolis]] and [[Pydna]], Athens had been formally at war with the [[ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]].<ref>D. Phillips, ''Athenian Political Oratory'', 69.</ref> In 352&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes characterised Philip as the very worst enemy of his city; his speech presaged the fierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonian king over the ensuing years.<ref name="Arist121">Demosthenes, ''Against Aristocrates'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D23%3Asection%3D121 121.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155141/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D23%3Asection%3D121 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> A year later he criticised those dismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was as dangerous as the king of [[Persia]].<ref name="Rhodians24">Demosthenes, ''For the Liberty of the Rhodians'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/For the Freedom of the Rhodians#15:24|24.]]</ref>

In 352&nbsp;BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at [[Thermopylae]],<ref name="Embassy319">Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:17|17]]; ''On the False Embassy'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Embassy#19:319|319]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 184 (note 92).</ref> but the Macedonian victory over the [[Phocians]] at the [[Battle of Crocus Field]] shook Demosthenes. In 351&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes felt strong enough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing Athens at that time: the stance his city should take towards Philip. According to [[Jacqueline de Romilly]], a French philologist and member of the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}}, the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances a focus and a {{Lang|fr|[[wikt:raison d'être|raison d'être]]}}.<ref name="Romilly116-117" /> Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to the autonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him as a monster of Athens's own creation; in the ''First Philippic'' he reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even if something happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip [...]".<ref>Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:11|11]]<br />* G. Kennedy, "Oratory", 519–520.</ref>

The theme of the ''[[First Philippic]]'' (351–350&nbsp;BC) was preparedness and the reform of the [[Theoric fund]],{{Ref label|F|f|none}} a mainstay of Eubulus' policy.<ref name="Romilly116-117" /> In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position".<ref>Demosthenes, ''First Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic I#4:10|10.]]</ref> He thus provided for the first time a plan and specific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against Philip in the north.<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 183–184.</ref> Among other things, the plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with each {{Lang|grc|[[wikt:ὁπλῑ́της|ὁπλῑ́της]]|size=80%}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|[[Hoplite|hoplī́tēs]]|size=90%}}) to be paid only ten [[Ancient drachma|drachmas]] per month (two [[obol (coin)|obols]] per day), which was less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens—implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting.<ref>First Philippic 28, cited by J. H. Vince, pp. 84–85 note ''a''.</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "We need money, for sure, Athenians, and without money nothing can be done that ought to be done."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''First Olynthiac'', 20)—The orator took great pains to convince his countrymen that the reform of the theoric fund was necessary to finance the city's military preparations.
|}

From this moment until 341&nbsp;BC, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to the same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349&nbsp;BC, Philip attacked [[Olynthus]], an ally of Athens. In the three ''[[Olynthiacs]]'', Demosthenes criticised his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus.<ref name="OlynthII23">Demosthenes, ''First Olynthiac'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac I#1:3|3]]; Demosthenes, ''Second Olynthiac'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Olynthiac II#2:3|3]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185.</ref> He also insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian".{{Ref label|G|g|none}} Despite Demosthenes' strong advocacy, the Athenians would not manage to prevent the falling of the city to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in a war in [[Euboea]] against Philip, which ended in a stalemate.<ref name="Peace5">Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:5|5]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 185–187.</ref>

====Case of Meidias (348&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Against Meidias}}
In 348&nbsp;BC a peculiar event occurred: [[Meidias]], a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the [[Dionysia|Greater Dionysia]], a large religious festival in honour of the god [[Dionysus]].<ref name="Usher226" /> Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea.<ref name="Peace5II">Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:5|5]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174 (note 47).</ref> He also was an old enemy of Demosthenes; in 361&nbsp;BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it.<ref name="Meidias 78–80">Demosthenes, ''Against Meidias'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D21%3Asection%3D78 78–80.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520104706/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D21%3Asection%3D78 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "Just think. The instant this court rises, each of you will walk home, one quicker, another more leisurely, not anxious, not glancing behind him, not fearing whether he is going to run up against a friend or an enemy, a big man or a little one, a strong man or a weak one, or anything of that sort. And why? Because in his heart he knows, and is confident, and has learned to trust the State, that no one shall seize or insult or strike him."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''Against Meidias'', 221)—The orator asked the Athenians to defend their legal system, by making an example of the defendant for the instruction of others.<ref name="Romilly113-117">J. De Romilly, ''Ancient Greece against Violence'', 113–117.</ref>
|}

Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote the judicial oration ''Against Meidias''. This speech gives valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of [[Hubris|hybris]] (aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a whole.<ref>H. Yunis, ''The Rhetoric of Law in 4th Century Athens'', 206.</ref> He stated that a democratic state perishes if the [[rule of law]] is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that the citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to the strength of the laws".<ref name="Meidias223">Demosthenes, ''Against Meidias'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074&layout=&loc=21.223 223.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117164744/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074&redirect=true |date=17 November 2022 }}</ref> There is no consensus among scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally delivered ''Against Meidias'' or on the veracity of Aeschines' accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges.{{Ref label|H|h|none}}

====Peace of Philocrates (347–345&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Peace of Philocrates}}
In 348&nbsp;BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire [[Chalkidiki|Chalcidice]] and all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led.<ref name="PhilippicIII56">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:56|56]]<br />* E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 187.</ref> After these Macedonian victories, Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who favoured compromise. In 347&nbsp;BC, an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to [[Pella]] to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright.<ref name="Aeschines34">Aeschines, ''The Speech on the Embassy'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D34 34] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520112043/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D2%3Asection%3D34 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref>

The ekklesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to [[Amphipolis]]. However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Philip under oath, which was required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad.<ref name="PhilippicIII15">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:15|15]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref> He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions that he might seize before the ratification.<ref name="Crown25-27">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:25|25–27]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref> Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay.<ref name="Crown25-27" /> Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in [[Thrace]].<ref name="Crown30">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:30|30]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–103.</ref>

Philip swore to the treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive the oaths from Macedon's allies in [[Thessaly]] and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at [[Pherae]], where Philip accompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance.<ref name="Crown31">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:31|31]]<br />* G. Cawkwell, ''Philip II of Macedon'', 102–105; D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Just after the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued [[Phocis]]; Athens made no move to support the Phocians.<ref name="Crown36">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:36|36]]; Demosthenes, ''On the Peace'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Peace#5:10|10]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the [[Amphictyonic League]], a Greek religious organisation formed to support the greater temples of [[Apollo]] and [[Demeter]].<ref name="Crown43">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:43|43.]]</ref> Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into the Council of the League.<ref name="Embassy111-113">Demosthenes, ''On the False Embassy'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Embassy#19:111|111–113]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12.</ref> Demosthenes was among those who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration ''[[On the Peace]]''. For Edmund M. Burke, this speech heralds a maturation in Demosthenes' career: after Philip's successful campaign in 346&nbsp;BC, the Athenian statesman realised that, if he was to lead his city against the Macedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone".<ref>E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 188–189.</ref>

====Second and Third Philippics (344–341&nbsp;BC)====
{{further|Second Philippic|On the Chersonese|Third Philippic}}
[[File:Gallipoli peninsula from space.png|thumb|Satellite image of the Thracian Chersonese and the surrounding area. The Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial dispute between Athens and Macedon. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338&nbsp;BC.]]
In 344&nbsp;BC Demosthenes travelled to the [[Peloponnese]], to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts were generally unsuccessful.<ref name="PhilippicII19">Demosthenes, ''Second Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic II#6:19|19.]]</ref> Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities.<ref name="Buckley">T. Buckley, ''Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC,'' 480.</ref> In response, Demosthenes delivered the ''[[Second Philippic]]'', a vehement attack against Philip. In 343&nbsp;BC Demosthenes delivered ''[[On the False Embassy]]'' against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, ''Aeschines,'' 840c<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 12 ''(in fine)''.</ref>

In 343&nbsp;BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in [[Epirus]] and, in 342&nbsp;BC, Philip campaigned in Thrace.<ref name="PhilippicIII17">Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:17|17.]]</ref> He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates.<ref name="Halonnesus18">Demosthenes (or Hegesippus), ''On Halonnesus,'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D7%3Asection%3D18 18–23] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520150250/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0070%3Aspeech%3D7%3Asection%3D18 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* D.M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13.</ref> When the Macedonian army approached [[Thracian Chersonese|Chersonese]] (now known as the [[Gallipoli Peninsula]]), an Athenian general named [[Diopeithes]] ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered ''[[On the Chersonese]]'' and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342&nbsp;BC, he delivered the ''[[Third Philippic]]'', which is considered to be the best of his political orations.<ref name="Tsatsos245">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 245.</ref> Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip".<ref>Demosthenes, ''Third Philippic'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/Philippic III#9:65|65]]<br />* D. M. MacDowell, ''Demosthenes the Orator'', ch. 13.</ref> Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.

====Battle of Chaeronea (338&nbsp;BC)====
{{details|Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)}}
[[File:Chaeronea map.png|thumb|right|The battle of Chaeronea took place in the autumn of 338&nbsp;BC and resulted in a significant victory for Philip, who established Macedon's supremacy over the Greek cities.]]
In 341&nbsp;BC Demosthenes was sent to [[Byzantium]], where he sought to renew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomatic manoeuvres, [[Abydos, Hellespont|Abydos]] also entered into an alliance with Athens. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty; so doing, in effect, amounted to an official declaration of war. In 339&nbsp;BC Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in the [[Amphictyonic League|Amphictyonic Council]]. During a meeting of the council, Philip accused the [[Amfissa|Amfissian]] [[Locrians]] of intruding on consecrated ground. The presiding officer of the council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in the Congress.<ref name="On the Crown151">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:149|149]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:150|150]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:151|151]]<br /> * C. Carey, ''Aeschines'', 7–8.</ref> Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained.<ref name="CareyI">C. Carey, ''Aeschines'', 7–8, 11.</ref> After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of 339–338&nbsp;BC, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated the Locrians. After this significant victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338&nbsp;BC. He then turned south-east down the [[Cephissus (Athenian plain)|Cephissus]] valley, seized [[Elateia]], and restored the fortifications of the city.<ref name="On the Crown152">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:152|152]]<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 283; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 41–42.</ref>

At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with [[Euboea]], [[Megara]], [[Achaea]], [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], [[Acarnania]] and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes. To secure their allegiance, Demosthenes was sent by Athens, to the [[Boeotia]]n city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing Thebes' allegiance.<ref name="On the Crown153">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:153|153]]<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 284–285; H. Weil, ''Biography of Demosthenes'', 41–42.</ref> Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognised, Thebes was to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost.<ref name="Rhodes317">P.J. Rhodes, ''A History of the Classical World'', 317.</ref>

While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty.<ref name="Pl18">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes,'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D3 18.3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520104415/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D3 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 284–285.</ref> After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]] of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plain near [[Chaeronea]], where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere [[hoplite]].{{Ref label|I|i|none}} Such was Philip's hatred for Demosthenes that, according to [[Diodorus Siculus]], the King after his victory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman [[Demades]] is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of [[Agamemnon]], are you not ashamed to act the part of [[Thersites]] [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the [[Trojan War]]]?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.<ref name="DiodXVI87">Diodorus, ''Library'', XVI, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D16%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D1 87.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520141618/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D16%3Achapter%3D87%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

===Last political initiatives and death===
====Confrontation with Alexander====
[[File:Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-24-01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Alexander Mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]], from a 3rd-century&nbsp;BC original Greek painting, now lost. In 336–335&nbsp;BC, the king of Macedon killed any attempt of the Greek cities at resistance and shattered Demosthenes's hopes for Athenian independence.]]
After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms. Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ekklesia to deliver the [[Demosthenes' Funeral Oration|Funeral Oration]].<ref name="On the Crown299">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:285|285]], [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:299|299.]]</ref> In 337&nbsp;BC, Philip created the [[League of Corinth]], a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella.<ref>L.A. Tritle, ''The Greek World in the Fourth Century'', 123.</ref> In 336&nbsp;BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter, [[Cleopatra of Macedon]], to King [[Alexander I of Epirus|Alexander of Epirus]]. The Macedonian citizens swiftly proclaimed [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III of Macedon]], then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership an opportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination and played a leading part in his city's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings, violating all decency."<ref name="Ctesiphon77" /> Demosthenes also sent envoys to [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander.<ref>P. Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', 119.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thirlwall|first=Connop|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=945b5VCgEFEC&q=%22Attalus%22+macedonia&pg=PA107|title=A History of Greece by the Rev. Connop Thirlwall|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Green & Longman, Paternoster-Row and John Taylor|year=1839|volume=6|language=en}}</ref> Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its gates. When the Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment.

In 335&nbsp;BC Alexander felt free to engage the [[Thracians]] and the [[Illyrians]], but, while he was campaigning in the north, Demosthenes spread a rumour—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by the [[Triballi]]ans.<ref>Demades, ''On the Twelve Years'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0066%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D17 17] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155129/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0066%3Aspeech%3D1%3Asection%3D17 |date=20 May 2012 }}<br />* J. R. Hamilton, ''Alexander the Great'', 48.</ref> The Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again, financed by [[Darius III of Persia]], and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300&nbsp;talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement.{{Ref label|J|j|none}} Alexander reacted immediately and razed Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. According to [[Plutarch]], a special Athenian embassy led by [[Phocion]], an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to relent.<ref name="Phocion">Plutarch, ''Phocion'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0057%3Achapter%3D17%3Asection%3D1 17.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520155010/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0057%3Achapter%3D17%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref>

According to ancient writers, Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" ({{langx|grc|Μαργίτης}})<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0026.tlg003.perseus-grc1:160| title = Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, §160}}</ref><ref name = "Harpokration">{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2013.01.0002%3Aletter%3Dm%3Aentry%3Dmargites| title = Harpokration, Lexicon of the Ten Orators, § m6}}</ref><ref name = "Plutach_Demosthenes">{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg054.perseus-grc1:23| title = Plutarch, Life of Demosthenes, §23}}</ref> and a boy.<ref name = "Plutach_Demosthenes"/> Greeks used the word Margites to describe foolish and useless people, on account of the [[Margites]].<ref name = "Harpokration"/><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg2040.tlg002.perseus-grc1:8.#note1| title = Advice to Young Men on Greek Literature, Basil of Caesarea, § 8}}</ref>

====Delivery of ''On the Crown''====
{{See also|On the Crown}}
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your public performances and also in your public abstinences. A project approved by the people is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettable incident is reported. Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an old sprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins to be active."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''On the Crown'', 198)—In ''On the Crown'' Demosthenes fiercely assaulted and finally neutralised Aeschines, his formidable political opponent.
|}
Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, most Athenians still respected Demosthenes, because they shared his sentiments and wished to restore their independence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A history of Greece, Volume 12|last=Grote|first=George|publisher=John Murray|year=1856|location=London}}</ref> In 336&nbsp;BC, the orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honour Demosthenes for his services to the city by presenting him, according to custom, with a golden crown. This proposal became a political issue and, in 330&nbsp;BC, Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities. In his most brilliant speech,<ref name="Tsatsos301">K. Tsatsos, ''Demosthenes'', 301; "Demosthenes". [[Encyclopaedia The Helios]]. 1952.</ref> ''On the Crown,'' Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He was unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honour and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty to Athens.<ref name="Cr321">Demosthenes, ''On the Crown'', [[s:The Public Orations of Demosthenes/On the Crown#18:321|321.]]</ref> He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections, though politically-motivated,<ref name=":0" /> to the crowning were arguably valid from a legal point of view.<ref name="Duncan">A. Duncan, ''Performance and Identity in the Classical World'', 70.</ref>

====Case of Harpalus and death====
{{details|Harpalus}}
[[File:Temple of Poseidon Poros.jpg|thumbnail|right|The site of the temple of Poseidon, [[Kalaureia]], where Demosthenes died by  suicide.]]
In 324&nbsp;BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures, absconded and sought refuge in Athens.{{Ref label|K|k|none}} The Assembly had initially refused to accept him, following Demosthenes' and [[Phocion]]'s advice, but finally Harpalus entered Athens. He was imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion, despite the dissent of [[Hypereides]], an anti-Macedonian statesman and former ally of Demosthenes. Additionally, the ekklesia decided to take control of Harpalus' money, which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only had half the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. When Harpalus escaped, the Areopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes and others with mishandling twenty talents.<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D3 25.3.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729220337/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D3 |date=29 July 2020 }}</ref>

Among the accused, Demosthenes was the first to be brought to trial before an unusually numerous jury of 1,500. He was found guilty and fined 50 talents.<ref>Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D26%3Asection%3D1 26.1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729194207/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D26%3Asection%3D1 |date=29 July 2020 }}</ref> Unable to pay this huge amount, Demosthenes escaped and only returned to Athens nine months later, after the death of Alexander. Upon his return, he "received from his countrymen an enthusiastic welcome, such as had never been accorded to any returning exile since the days of [[Alkibiades]]."<ref name=":0" /> Such a reception, the circumstances of the case, Athenian need to placate Alexander, the urgency to account for the missing funds, Demosthenes' patriotism and wish to set Greece free from Macedonian rule, all lend support to George Grote's view that Demosthenes was innocent, that the charges against him were politically-motivated, and that he "was neither paid nor bought by Harpalus."<ref name=":0" />

[[Mogens Herman Hansen|Mogens Hansen]], however, notes that many Athenian leaders, Demosthenes included, made fortunes out of their political activism, especially by taking bribes from fellow citizens and such foreign states as Macedonia and Persia. Demosthenes received vast sums for the many decrees and laws he proposed. Given this pattern of corruption in Greek politics, it appears likely, writes Hansen, that Demosthenes accepted a huge bribe from Harpalus, and that he was justly found guilty in an Athenian People's Court.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hansen|first=Mogens|title=The Athenian democracy in the age of Demosthenes|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8061-3143-6|location=Norman|pages=274–5}}</ref> <br />
{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "For a house, I take it, or a ship or anything of that sort must have its chief strength in its substructure; and so too in affairs of state the principles and the foundations must be truth and justice."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Demosthenes (''Second Olynthiac'', 10)—The orator faced serious accusations more than once, but he never admitted to any improper actions and insisted that it is impossible "to gain permanent power by injustice, perjury, and falsehood".
|}
After Alexander's death in 323&nbsp;BC, Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the [[Lamian War]]. However, Antipater, Alexander's successor, quelled all opposition and demanded that the Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his order, the ekklesia had no choice but to reluctantly adopt a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of [[Kalaureia]] (modern-day [[Poros]]), where he was later discovered by Archias, a confidant of Antipater. He died by suicide before his capture by taking poison out of a reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family.<ref name="Pl29">Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D29%3Asection%3D1 29.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120520110336/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0039%3Achapter%3D29%3Asection%3D1 |date=20 May 2012 }}</ref> When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of [[Creon of Thebes|Creon]] in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died.<ref name="Pl29" /> Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honour him and decreed that the state should provide meals to his descendants in the [[Prytaneum]].<ref name="pseudo14">Pseudo-Plutarch, ''Demosthenes'', 847d.</ref>