Editing David Livingstone (section)

==Exploration of southern and central Africa==
[[File:Map livingstone travels africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The journeys of Livingstone in Africa between 1851 and 1873]]

To improve his [[Tswana language]] skills and find locations to set up mission stations, Livingstone made journeys far to the north of Kolobeng with [[William Cotton Oswell]]. In 1849 they crossed the [[Kalahari Desert]] and reached [[Lake Ngami]]. In 1850, he was recognised by the [[Royal Geographical Society]] which presented him a [[chronometer watch]] for 'his journey to the great lake of Ngami'.<ref name="RGS">{{citation|title=Royal Geographical Society |journal=Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London|volume=36|date=1866 |place=london |publisher=John Murray |page=lxxxi |jstor=1798483}}</ref> He heard of a river which could potentially become a "Highway" to the coast, and in August 1851 they reached the [[Zambezi]] which he hoped would be a "key to the Interior".<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />
In 1852, after sending his family to Britain, Livingstone travelled north to the village of Linyanti on the Zambezi river, located roughly midway between the east and west coast of the continent, where [[Sekeletu]], chief of the [[Kololo people|Kololo]], granted Livingstone authority as a [[InDuna|nduna]] to lead a joint investigation of trade routes to the coast, with 27 Kololo warriors acting as interpreters and guides. They reached the Portuguese city of [[Luanda]] on the Atlantic in May 1854 after profound difficulties and the near-death of Livingstone from fever. Livingstone realized the route would be too difficult for future traders, so he retraced the journey back to Linyanti. Then with 114 Kololo men, loaned by the same chief, he set off east down the Zambezi. On this leg he became the first European to see the Mosi-oa-Tunya ("the smoke that thunders") waterfall, which he named [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]] after [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]. Eventually he successfully reached [[Quelimane]] on the Indian Ocean, having mapped most of the course of the Zambezi river.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=126, 147–148}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />

For this, Livingstone became famous as the first European to cross south-central Africa at that [[latitude]] and was hailed as having "opened up" Africa,{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=126, 147–8}} but there was already a  long-established trans-regional network of trade routes.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" /> Portuguese traders had penetrated to the middle of the continent from both sides, in 1853–1854 two Arab traders crossed the continent from [[Zanzibar]] to [[Benguela]], and around 1800 two native traders crossed from Angola to Mozambique.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b|p=159}}

[[File:Preaching from a Waggon (David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Livingstone preaching the gospel to unconverted Africans. Like other missionaries of the era he had a low success rate and is credited with a single conversion.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b}}]]

Livingstone advocated the establishment of trade and religious missions in central Africa, but abolition of the [[African slave trade]], as carried out by the Portuguese of [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete]] and the Arab Swahili of [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]], became his primary goal. His motto—now inscribed on his statue at Victoria Falls—was "{{visible anchor|Christianity, Commerce and Civilization}}", a combination that he hoped would form an alternative to the slave trade, and impart dignity to the Africans in the eyes of Europeans.<ref name="Tomkins 2013a">{{cite book|last=Tomkins|first=Stephen |title=David Livingstone: The Unexplored Story|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZv7G67rWuwC|year=2013|publisher=Lion Books|isbn=978-0-7459-5568-1}}</ref> He believed that the key to achieving these goals was the navigation of the Zambezi as a Christian commercial highway into the interior.<ref name="Holmes">{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Tim |title=Spectrum Guide to Zambia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlUwAQAAIAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-86872-012-5|chapter=The History}}</ref>

===Author and campaigner===
He returned to Britain in December 1856. The [[Royal Geographical Society]] awarded him their [[Patron's Medal]] in 1855 for his explorations in Africa.<ref name="RGS"/> Encouraged by the [[London Missionary Society]], he wrote up his journal, but unconventionally had his ''Missionary Travels'' published in 1857 by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]], making it a bestselling travelogue. The book included his field science and sympathetic descriptions of African people. He proposed that missions and "legitimate commerce" by river into central Africa would end slave trading.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015">{{cite web |first1=Adrian S. |last1=Wisnicki |first2= Megan |last2=Ward | title=Livingstone's Life & Expeditions | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstone-s-life-expeditions |year=2015| access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref>{{sfn | Livingstone | 1857 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n122 92], [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n740 679–680, 683]}}

[[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Slave traders and their captives bound in chains and collared with 'taming sticks'. From Livingstone's ''Narrative'']]

Livingstone was encouraged by the response in Britain to his discoveries and support for future expeditions. He proposed to do more exploration, primarily to find routes for commercial trade which he believed would displace slave trade routes, more so than for solely missionary work.  The London Missionary Society (LMS) on learning of his plans sent a letter which Livingstone received at Quelimane, congratulating him on his journey but said that the directors were "restricted in their power of aiding plans connected only remotely with the spread of the Gospel".{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | p=156}} This brusque rejection for new mission stations north of the Zambezi and his wider object of opening the interior for trade via the Zambezi, was not enough to make him resign from the LMS at once. When [[Roderick Murchison]], president of the Royal Geographical Society, put him in touch with the foreign secretary, Livingstone said nothing to the LMS directors, even when his leadership of a government expedition to the Zambezi seemed increasingly likely to be funded by the exchequer. "I am not yet fairly on with the Government," he told a friend, "but am nearly quite off with the Society (LMS)." Livingstone resigned from the London Missionary Society in 1857, and in May of that year he was appointed as her majesty's consul with a roving commission, extending through Mozambique to the areas west of it.<ref>Livingstone to Lord Clarendon 19 March 1857 Clarendon Papers Bodleian Library Dep. c 80</ref> In February 1858 his area of jurisdiction was stipulated to be "the Eastern Coast of Africa and the independent districts in the interior".<ref>C. A. Baker, "The Development of the Administration to 1897", in ''The Early History of Malawi'', edited by [[Bridglal Pachai]] (London, [[Longman]], 1972), p. 324.</ref>

While he negotiated with the government for his new position as consul, the LMS thought that he would return to Africa with their mission to the Kololo in [[Barotseland]], which Livingstone had promoted.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=169–171, 189}} That mission eventually suffered deaths from malaria of a missionary, his wife, a second missionary's wife, and three children. Livingstone had suffered over thirty attacks during his previous journey but had understated his suffering and overstated the quality of the land they would find, and the missionaries set out for the marshy region with wholly inadequate supplies of quinine. Biographer Tim Jeal considered this episode a major failing for Livingstone, and indicative of a pattern of putting his goals and career above the lives of those around him.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=159, 176–185}}

Livingstone was now a celebrity, in great demand as a public speaker, and was elected to the [[Royal Society]]. He gained public backing for his plans, and raised finances for his next expedition by public subscription, as well as £5,000 from the government to investigate the potential for British trade via the Zambezi.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />

===Zambezi expedition===<!-- This section is linked from [[Zambezi]] -->
In December 1857 the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office|Foreign Office]] proposed a huge expedition. Livingstone had envisaged another solo journey with African helpers, and in January 1858 he agreed to lead a [[second Zambezi expedition]] with six specialist officers, hurriedly recruited in the UK.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=126–132}}

The prefabricated iron river steamer ''Ma Robert'' was quickly built in portable sections, and loaded onto the [[Colonial Office]] steamer ''Pearl'', which took them out on its way to Ceylon. They left on 10 March, at [[Freetown]] collected twelve [[Krumen people#Seafaring|Kru seafarers]] to man the river steamer, and reached the Zambezi on 14 May. The plan was for both ships to take them up the river to establish bases, but it turned out to be completely impassable to boats past the [[Cahora Bassa]] rapids, a series of [[Waterfall#Types of waterfalls|cataracts]] and [[rapids]] that Livingstone had failed to explore on his earlier travels. ''Pearl'' offloaded their supplies on an island about {{convert|40|mi|km}} upstream. From there, ''Ma Robert'' had to make repeated slow journeys, getting hauled across shoals. The riverbanks were a war zone, with Portuguese soldiers and their slaves fighting the [[Chikunda#The Zambezi wars|Chikunda]] slave-hunters of Matakenya (Mariano), but both sides accepted the expedition as friends.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=129–138}}<ref>{{cite wikisource|chapter= I|wslink=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries|plaintitle=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries| last=Livingstone|first=David|year= 1894 |publisher=John Murray|page=|wspage=|scan=}}</ref>

[[File:MaryMoffatGravestone.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|The grave of Livingstone's wife, [[Mary Moffat Livingstone]], in [[Chupanga]], Mozambique. She died in 1862.]]
The experts, stuck at Shupanga, could not make the intended progress, and there were disagreements. Artist [[Thomas Baines]] was dismissed from the expedition. Others on the expedition became the first to reach [[Lake Malawi|Lake Nyasa]] and they explored it in a four-oared [[Captain's gig|gig]]. In 1861 the Colonial Office provided a new wooden paddle survey vessel, ''Pioneer'', which took the [[Universities' Mission to Central Africa]] (UMCA) led by Bishop [[Charles Mackenzie (bishop)|Charles MacKenzie]] up the Shire river to found a new mission.

Livingstone raised funds for a replacement river steamer, ''Lady Nyasa'', specially designed to sail on Lake  Nyasa. It was shipped out in sections, contrary to his request, with a mission party including Mary Livingstone, and arrived in 1862. The ''Pioneer'' was delayed getting down to the coast to meet them, and there were further delays after it was found that the bishop had died. Mary Livingstone died on 27 April 1862 from [[malaria]].

Livingstone took ''Pioneer'' up the coast and investigated the [[Ruvuma River]], and the physician [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]] wrote "I can come to no other conclusion than that Dr Livingstone is out of his mind and a most unsafe leader".

When ''Pioneer'' returned to Shupanga in December 1862, they paid (in cloth) their "Mazaro men" who left and engaged replacements. On 10 January 1863 they set off, towing ''Lady Nyasa'', and went up the Shire river past scenes of devastation as Mariano's Chikunda slave-hunts caused famine, and they frequently had to clear the paddle wheels of corpses left floating downstream. They reached [[Chikwawa|Chibisa's]] and the [[Kapachira Falls|Murchison Cataracts]] in April, then began dismantling ''Lady Nyasa'' and building a road to take its sections past the cataracts, while explorations continued.{{sfn | Livingstone | Livingstone | 1866 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeanexpe03livigoog/page/n509/mode/2up 472–475]}}{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=180–182}}

He brought the ships downriver in 1864 after the government ordered the recall of the expedition. The Zambezi Expedition was castigated as a failure in many newspapers of the time, and Livingstone experienced great difficulty in raising funds to further explore Africa. John Kirk, Charles Meller, and Richard Thornton, scientists appointed to work under Livingstone, contributed large collections of botanical, ecological, geological, and ethnographic material to scientific Institutions in the United Kingdom.

===The Nile===
In January 1866, Livingstone returned to Africa, this time to [[Zanzibar]], and from there he set out to seek the source of the [[Nile]]. [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[John Hanning Speke]], and [[Samuel Baker]] had identified either [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] or [[Lake Victoria]] as the source (which was partially correct, as the Nile "bubbles from the ground high in the mountains of [[Burundi]] halfway between [[Lake Tanganyika]] and [[Lake Victoria]]"{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=384}}), but there was still serious debate on the matter. Livingstone believed that the source was farther south and assembled a team to find it consisting of freed slaves, [[Comoros]] Islanders, twelve [[Sepoy]]s, and two servants from his previous expedition, [[Chuma and Susi]]. {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}

[[File:Livingstone House, Mikindani, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|This house in Mikindani in southern Tanzania was the starting point for Livingstone's last expedition. He stayed here from 24 March to 7 April 1866.]]
Livingstone set out from the mouth of the Ruvuma river, but his assistants gradually began deserting him. The Comoros Islanders had returned to Zanzibar and (falsely) informed authorities that Livingstone had died. He reached [[Lake Malawi]] on 6 August, by which time most of his supplies had been stolen, including all his medicines. Livingstone then travelled through swamps in the direction of Lake Tanganyika, with his health declining. He sent a message to Zanzibar requesting that supplies be sent to [[Ujiji]] and he then headed west, forced by ill health to travel with slave traders. He arrived at [[Lake Mweru]] on 8 November 1867 and continued on, travelling south to become the first European to see [[Lake Bangweulu]]. Upon finding the [[Lualaba River]], Livingstone theorised that it could have been the high part of the [[Nile]]; but realised that it in fact flowed into the [[River Congo]] at [[River Congo|Upper Congo Lake]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Livingstone |first1=David |title=Personal Letter to J. Kirk or R. Playfair |url=http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |website=David Livingstone Online |access-date=10 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221195004/http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |archive-date=21 December 2014 }}</ref>

The year 1869 began with Livingstone finding himself extremely ill while in the jungle. He was saved by Arab traders who gave him medicines and carried him to an Arab outpost.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}}

On 15 July 1871,<ref>{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David|editor-first=Adrian S.|editor-last=Wisnicki|title=Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary: A Multispectral Critical Edition|url=http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary|year=2011|publisher=UCLA Library|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-date=4 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504101329/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Livingstone recorded in his field diary his immediate impressions as he witnessed around 400 Africans being massacred by Arab slavers at the [[Nyangwe]] market on the banks of the [[Lualaba River]], while he was watching next to the leading Arab trader Dugumbe who had given him assistance.{{sfn|Jeal|1973|pp=331–335}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2011">{{Cite web |title=Livingstone in 1871 |last=Wisnicki |first=Adrian S. |work=livingstoneonline.org |date=2011 |access-date=25 April 2019 |url= http://www.livingstoneonline.org/spectral-imaging/livingstone-in-1871 }}</ref>

The cause behind this attack is stated to be retaliation for actions of Manilla, the head slave who had sacked villages of Mohombo people at the instigation of the Wagenya chieftain Kimburu. The Arabs attacked the shoppers and Kimburu's people.{{sfn|Jeal|1973|pp=331–335}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2011" />

Researchers from the [[Indiana University of Pennsylvania]] who scanned Livingstone's diary suggest that in putting his fragmentary notes about the massacre into the narrative of his journal, he left out his concerns about some of his followers, slaves owned by [[Banyan merchants]] who had been hired by [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]], acting consul at Zanzibar, and sent to get Livingstone to safety. These slaves had been liberated and added to his party, but had shown violent conduct against local people contrary to his instructions, and he feared they might have been involved in starting the massacre. His diary noted "Dugumbe's men murdering Kimburu and another for slaves" and implied that the slave Manilla played a leading part, but looking back at the events, he says Dugumbé's people bore responsibility, and started it to make an example of Manilla. In the diary he described his sending his men with protection of a flag to assist Manilla's brother. In his journal version it was to assist villagers. The version edited by Waller in the "Last Journals", published in 1874, left out the context of Livingstone's earlier comments about Kirk and bad behaviour of the hired Banyan men, and omitted the villagers' earlier violent resistance to Arab slavers, so it portrayed the villagers as passive victims. The section on the massacre itself had only minor grammatical corrections. Further research into diary notes continues.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Researchers now presume that Dr Livingstone lied |work=CBS News |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=25 April 2019 |url= https://www.cbsnews.com/news/researchers-now-presume-that-dr-livingstone-lied/ }}</ref><ref name="Wisnicki 2011" />

The massacre horrified Livingstone, leaving him too shattered to continue his mission to find the source of the Nile.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}} Following the end of the wet season, he travelled {{convert|240|mi|km|sigfig=2}} from Nyangwe back to Ujiji, an Arab settlement on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika—violently ill most of the way—arriving on 23 October 1871.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2024 |title=David Livingstone – Zambezi Expedition, Missionary, Explorer {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Livingstone/The-Zambezi-expedition |access-date=13 June 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Geographical discoveries===
Livingstone was wrong about the Nile, but he identified numerous geographical features for Western science, such as [[Lake Ngami]], [[Lake Malawi]], and [[Lake Bangweulu]], in addition to Victoria Falls mentioned above.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} He filled in details of [[Lake Tanganyika]], [[Lake Mweru]], and the course of many rivers, especially the upper Zambezi, and his observations enabled large regions to be mapped which previously had been blank. Even so, the farthest north he reached was the north end of Lake Tanganyika—still south of the [[Equator]]—and he did not penetrate the rainforest of the [[River Congo]] any farther downstream than Ntangwe near [[Misisi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Map showing Dr David Livingstone's travels in Africa|url=http://www.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-000-099-943-C|access-date=7 February 2023|website=Scran|language=en}}</ref>{{original research inline| date= July 2023 | reason= this citation is to some map you can buy? the resolution is not good enough to see whether or not it supports the claim}}

Livingstone was awarded the gold medal of the [[Royal Geographical Society]] of London and was made a Fellow of the society, with which he had a strong association for the rest of his life.<ref name="Blaikie" />