Editing Confirmation bias (section)

=== Biased recall of information ===
People may remember evidence selectively to reinforce their expectations, even if they gather and interpret evidence in a neutral manner. This effect is called "selective recall", "confirmatory memory", or "access-biased memory".<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hastie |first1=Reid |first2=Bernadette |last2=Park |chapter=The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the judgment task is memory-based or on-line |title=Social cognition: key readings |editor-first=David L. |editor-last=Hamilton |publisher=Psychology Press |location=New York |year=2005 |page=394 |isbn=978-0-86377-591-8 |oclc=55078722}}</ref> Psychological theories differ in their predictions about selective recall. [[Schema (psychology)|Schema theory]] predicts that information matching prior expectations will be more easily stored and recalled than information that does not match.<ref name=oswald88 /> Some alternative approaches say that surprising information stands out and so is memorable.<ref name="oswald88">{{Harvnb|Oswald|Grosjean|2004|pp=88–89}}</ref> Predictions from both these theories have been confirmed in different experimental contexts, with no theory winning outright.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Stangor |first1=Charles |first2=David |last2=McMillan |year=1992 |title= Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of the social and social developmental literatures |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=42–61 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.111.1.42}}</ref>

In one study, participants read a profile of a woman which described a mix of introverted and extroverted behaviors.<ref name="snydercantor" /> They later had to recall examples of her introversion and extroversion. One group was told this was to assess the woman for a job as a librarian, while a second group were told it was for a job in real estate sales. There was a significant difference between what these two groups recalled, with the "librarian" group recalling more examples of introversion and the "sales" groups recalling more extroverted behavior.<ref name="snydercantor">{{Citation |last1= Snyder |first1=M. |first2=N. |last2=Cantor |year=1979 |title=Testing hypotheses about other people: the use of historical knowledge |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=15 |pages=330–342 |doi=10.1016/0022-1031(79)90042-8 |issue= 4}} via {{Harvnb|Goldacre|2008|p=231}}</ref> A selective memory effect has also been shown in experiments that manipulate the desirability of personality types.<ref name=oswald88 /><ref>{{Harvnb|Kunda|1999|pp=225–232}}</ref> In one of these, a group of participants were shown evidence that extroverted people are more successful than introverts. Another group were told the opposite. In a subsequent, apparently unrelated study, participants were asked to recall events from their lives in which they had been either introverted or extroverted. Each group of participants provided more memories connecting themselves with the more desirable personality type, and recalled those memories more quickly.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Sanitioso |first1=Rasyid |first2=Ziva |last2=Kunda |first3=G.T. |last3=Fong |year=1990 |title= Motivated recruitment of autobiographical memories |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |issn=0022-3514 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=229–241 |doi= 10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.229 |pmid=2213492}}</ref>

Changes in emotional states can also influence memory recall.<ref name=levine>{{Citation|last=Levine|first=L.|author2=Prohaska, V. |author3=Burgess, S.L. |author4=Rice, J.A. |author5=Laulhere, T.M. |title=Remembering past emotions: The role of current appraisals|journal=Cognition and Emotion|year=2001|volume=15|issue=4|pages=393–417|doi=10.1080/02699930125955|s2cid=22743423}}</ref><ref name=safer>{{Citation|last=Safer|first=M.A.|author2=Bonanno, G.A. |author3=Field, N. |title=It was never that bad: Biased recall of grief and long-term adjustment to the death of a spouse|journal=Memory|year=2001|volume=9|issue=3|pages=195–203|doi=10.1080/09658210143000065|pmid=11469313|s2cid=24729233}}</ref> Participants rated how they felt when they had first learned that [[O. J. Simpson]] had been acquitted of murder charges.<ref name="levine"/> They described their emotional reactions and confidence regarding the verdict one week, two months, and one year after the trial. Results indicated that participants' assessments for Simpson's guilt changed over time. The more that participants' opinion of the verdict had changed, the less stable were the participant's memories regarding their initial emotional reactions. When participants recalled their initial emotional reactions two months and a year later, past appraisals closely resembled current appraisals of emotion. People demonstrate sizable myside bias when discussing their opinions on controversial topics.<ref name="stanovich"/> Memory recall and construction of experiences undergo revision in relation to corresponding emotional states.

Myside bias has been shown to influence the accuracy of memory recall.<ref name="safer"/> In an experiment, widows and widowers rated the intensity of their experienced grief six months and five years after the deaths of their spouses. Participants noted a higher experience of grief at six months rather than at five years. Yet, when the participants were asked after five years how they had felt six months after the death of their significant other, the intensity of grief participants recalled was highly [[correlation|correlated]] with their current level of grief. Individuals appear to utilize their current emotional states to analyze how they must have felt when experiencing past events.<ref name=levine /> Emotional memories are reconstructed by current emotional states.

One study showed how selective memory can maintain belief in [[extrasensory perception]] (ESP).<ref name="russell_jones">{{Citation |last1=Russell |first1=Dan |first2=Warren H. |last2=Jones |year=1980 |title=When superstition fails: Reactions to disconfirmation of paranormal beliefs |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages= 83–88 |issn=1552-7433 |doi=10.1177/014616728061012|s2cid=145060971 }} via {{Harvnb|Vyse|1997|p=121}}</ref> Believers and disbelievers were each shown descriptions of ESP experiments. Half of each group were told that the experimental results supported the existence of ESP, while the others were told they did not. In a subsequent test, participants recalled the material accurately, apart from believers who had read the non-supportive evidence. This group remembered significantly less information and some of them incorrectly remembered the results as supporting ESP.<ref name="russell_jones" />