Editing Charles I of Anjou (section)

==Wider ambitions==

===Conflicts and consolidation===

Charles's officers continued the survey of the counts' rights and revenues in Provence, provoking a new rebellion during his absence.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=73}} On his return he applied both diplomacy and military force to deal with them.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=73}} The [[Archbishop of Arles]] and the [[Bishop of Digne]] ceded their secular rights in the two towns to Charles in 1250.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=50}} He received military assistance from his brother, Alphonse.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=43}} Arles was the first town to surrender to them in April 1251.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} In May they forced Avignon to acknowledge their joint rule.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=43}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} A month later Barral of Baux also capitulated.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months, but it also sought peace in July 1252.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} Its [[Burgher (title)|burghers]] acknowledged Charles as their lord, but retained their self-governing bodies.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}}

[[File:128 Cristaux de sel en formation dans une flaque d'eau.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Scattered patches of salt crystals in a puddle|Salt crystals in a puddle in [[Camargue]]. Salt pans at the delta of the [[Rhone]] significantly increased Charles's revenues in Provence.]]

Charles's officials continued to ascertain his rights,{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=48}} visiting each town and holding public enquiries to obtain information about all claims.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=48}} The count's salt monopoly (or {{lang|fr|[[gabelle]]}}) was introduced in the whole county.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=48}} Income from the salt trade made up about 50% of state revenues by the late 1250s.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=48}} Charles abolished local tolls and promoted shipbuilding and [[grain trade]].{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=47}} He ordered the issue of new coins, called {{lang|fro|provencaux}}, to enable the use of the local currency in smaller transactions.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=46}}

Emperor Frederick II, who was also the ruler of Sicily, died in 1250. The [[Kingdom of Sicily]], also known as the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy nearly as far as Rome. Pope Innocent IV claimed that the Regno had reverted to the Holy See.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=57}} The Pope first offered it to [[Richard of Cornwall]], but Richard did not want to fight against Frederick's son, [[Conrad IV of Germany]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=57}} Then the Pope proposed to [[enfeoff]] Charles with the kingdom.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=57}} Charles sought instructions from Louis IX, who forbade him to accept the offer, because he regarded Conrad as the lawful ruler.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=57}} After Charles informed the Holy See on 30{{nbs}}October 1253 that he would not accept the Regno, the Pope offered it to [[Edmund of Lancaster]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=58}}

Queen Blanche, who had administered France during Louis' crusade,{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} died on 1{{nbs}}December 1252.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=109}} Louis made Alphonse and Charles co-regents, so that he could remain in the Holy Land.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=16}} [[Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut]], had come into [[War of the Flemish Succession|conflict with her son]] by her first marriage, [[John I, Count of Hainaut|John of Avesnes]].{{sfn|Nicholas|1992|pp=156–157}} After her sons by her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed foreign assistance to secure their release.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=37}}{{sfn|Nicholas|1992|p=157}} Ignoring Louis IX's 1246 ruling that Hainaut should pass to John, she promised the county to Charles.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=37}} He accepted the offer and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local noblemen to swear fealty to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=37}} After his return to France, Louis IX insisted that his ruling was to be respected.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} In November 1255 he ordered Charles to restore Hainaut to Margaret, but her sons were obliged to swear fealty to Charles.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=38}} Louis also ruled that she was to pay 160,000 marks to Charles over the following 13 years.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=38}}

Charles returned to Provence, which had again become restive.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}} His mother-in-law continued to support the rebellious [[Boniface of Castellane]] and his allies, but Louis IX persuaded her to return Forcalquier to Charles and relinquish her claims for a lump sum payment from Charles and a pension from Louis in November 1256.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=47}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=74–75}} A coup by Charles's supporters in Marseilles resulted in the surrender of all political powers there to his officials.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}} Charles continued to expand his power along the borders of Provence in the next four years.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}} He received territories in the Lower Alps from the [[Dauphin of Vienne]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}} [[Raymond I of Baux]], Count of Orange, ceded the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}} The burghers of [[Cuneo]]—a town strategically located on the routes from Provence to Lombardy—sought Charles's protection against [[Asti]] in July 1259.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=79}}{{sfn|Cox|1974|p=285}} [[Alba, Piedmont|Alba]], [[Cherasco]], [[Savigliano]] and other nearby towns acknowledged his rule.{{sfn|Cox|1974|p=286}} The rulers of [[Mondovì]], [[Marquisate of Ceva|Ceva]], [[Biandrate]] and [[Marquisate of Saluzzo|Saluzzo]] did homage to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}}

Emperor Frederick II's illegitimate son, [[Manfred of Sicily|Manfred]], had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=111}} After the English barons had announced that they opposed a war against Manfred, [[Pope Alexander IV]] annulled the 1253 grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=63}} Alexander's successor, [[Pope Urban IV]], was determined to put an end to the Emperor's rule in Italy.{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=17}}{{sfn|Takayama|2004|p=76}} He sent his notary, Albert of Parma, to Paris to negotiate with Louis IX for Charles to be placed on the Sicilian throne.{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=18}} Charles met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=74}}

Taking advantage of Charles's absence, Boniface of Castellane stirred up a new revolt in Provence.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=75}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|pp=77–78}} The burghers of Marseilles expelled Charles's officials, but Barral of Baux stopped the spread of the rebellion before Charles's return.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=75–76}} Charles renounced [[Ventimiglia]] in favour of the [[Republic of Genoa]] to secure her neutrality.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=76}} He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into exile.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=76}} The mediation of [[James I of Aragon]] brought about a settlement with Marseilles: its fortifications were dismantled and the townspeople surrendered their arms, but the town retained its autonomy.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=76}}

===Conquest of the Regno===
[[File:KorunovaceKarlazAnjou.jpg|alt=Four bishops and five young men kneeling before a man who sits on a throne|thumb|Charles is crowned King of Sicily in Rome (1266), illustration from the next century]]
Louis IX decided to support Charles's military campaign in Italy in May 1263.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=131}} Pope Urban IV promised to proclaim a crusade against Manfred, while Charles pledged that he would not accept any offices in the Italian towns.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=78}} Manfred staged a coup in Rome, but the [[Guelphs]] elected Charles [[Summus Senator|senator]] (or the head of the civil government of Rome).{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=78}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=132}} He accepted the office, at which a group of [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinals]] requested that the Pope revoke the agreement with him, but the Pope, being otherwise defenceless against Manfred, could not break with Charles.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=79}}

In the spring of 1264 Cardinals [[Simon of Brie]] and [[Pope Clement IV|Guy Foulquois]] were sent to France to reach a compromise and start raising support for the crusade.{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=18}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=79}} Charles sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope against Manfred's allies.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=81}} At Foulquois' request, Charles's sister-in-law Margaret (who had not abandoned her claims to her dowry) pledged that she would not take actions against Charles during his absence.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=81}} Foulquois also persuaded the French and Provençal prelates to offer financial support for the crusade.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=132}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=81}} Pope Urban died before the final agreement was concluded.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=82}} Charles made arrangements for his campaign against Sicily during the interregnum; he concluded agreements to secure his army's route across Lombardy and had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=82}}

Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265; he soon confirmed Charles's senatorship and urged him to come to Rome.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=82–83}} Charles agreed that he would hold the Kingdom of Sicily as the popes' vassal for an annual tribute of 8,000 ounces of gold.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=132}} He also promised that he would never seek the imperial title.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=132}} He embarked at Marseilles on 10{{nbs}}May and landed at [[Ostia (Rome)|Ostia]] ten days later.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=82}} He was installed as senator on 21{{nbs}}June and four cardinals invested him with the Regno a week later.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=82}} To finance further military actions he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's assistance, who had authorised him to pledge Church property.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=87}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=133}} Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on 5{{nbs}}January 1266.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=133}} The crusaders from France and Provence—reportedly 6,000 fully equipped mounted warriors, 600 mounted bowmen and 20,000 foot-soldiers—arrived in Rome ten days later.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=87}}{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=19}}

[[File:Villani Benevento.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|alt=Knights fighting against each other, with shields each depicting either lilies or an eagle|[[Battle of Benevento]]: Charles defeats his opponent, [[Manfred, King of Sicily]] (1266).]]

Charles decided to invade southern Italy without delay, because he was unable to finance a lengthy campaign.{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=19}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=90}} He left Rome on 20{{nbs}}January 1266.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=90}} He marched towards [[Naples]], but changed his strategy after learning of a muster of Manfred's forces near [[Capua]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=91}} He led his troops across the [[Apennines]] towards [[Benevento]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=91}} Manfred also hurried to the town and reached it before Charles.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=91}} Worried that further delays might endanger his subjects' loyalty, Manfred attacked Charles's army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills, on 26{{nbs}}February 1266.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=91}} In the [[Battle of Benevento|ensuing battle]], Manfred's army was defeated and he was killed.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=91}}

Resistance throughout the Regno collapsed{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=19}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=96}} and towns surrendered even before Charles's troops reached them.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=96}} The [[Saracen]]s of [[Lucera]]—a [[Muslim settlement of Lucera|Muslim colony established during Frederick II's reign]]{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=16}}—paid homage to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=96}} His commander, [[Philip of Montfort, Lord of Castres|Philip of Montfort]], took control of the island of [[Sicily]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=96}} Manfred's widow, [[Helena of Epirus]], and their children were captured.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=89}} Charles laid claim to her dowry—the island of [[Corfu]] and the region of Durazzo (now [[Durrës]] in Albania)—by right of conquest.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=89}} His troops seized Corfu before the end of the year.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=136}}

===Conradin===

{{See also|Frederick I, Margrave of Meissen}}

Charles was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=56}} They knew that he had promised to return estates to the Guelph lords expelled from the Regno.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=56}} Neither could Charles gain the commoners' loyalty, partly because he continued enforcing the {{lang|lt|[[subventio generalis]]}} despite the popes declaring it an illegal charge.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=57}}{{sfn|Takayama|2004|p=77}} He introduced a ban on the use of foreign currency in large transactions and made a profit of the compulsory exchange of foreign coinage for locally minted currency.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|pp=163–164}} He also traded in grain, spices and sugar, through a joint venture with Pisan merchants.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=158}}

Pope Clement censured Charles for his methods of state administration, describing him as an arrogant and obstinate monarch.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=98}} The consolidation of Charles's power in northern Italy also alarmed Clement.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=98–99}} To appease the Pope, Charles resigned his senatorship in May 1267.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=98}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=134}} His successors, [[Conrad Monaldeschi]] and [[Luca Savelli]], demanded the re-payment of the money that Charles and the Pope had borrowed from the Romans.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=98}}

Victories by the [[Ghibellines]], the imperial family's supporters, forced the Pope to ask Charles to send his troops to [[Tuscany]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=100}} Charles's troops ousted the Ghibellines from [[Florence]] in April 1267.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=100}} After being elected the {{Lang|it|[[Podestà]]|italic=no}} (ruler) of Florence and [[Lucca]] for seven years, Charles hurried to Tuscany.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=100}} Charles's expansionism along the [[Papal States]]' borders alarmed Pope Clement and he decided to change the direction of Charles's ambitions.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=134}} The Pope summoned him to [[Viterbo]], forcing him to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany in three years.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=100–101}} He persuaded Charles to [[Treaty of Viterbo|conclude agreements]] with [[William of Villehardouin]], Prince of Achaea, and the titular [[Latin emperor]]{{#tag:ref|The [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]] was established on the ruins of the [[Byzantine Empire]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204. The [[emperors of Nicaea]], a Byzantine successor state, restored Greek rule on most territories lost to the Latin emperors during the following decades. The Latins also lost Constantinople to the Nicaeans in 1261.{{sfn|Lock|1995|pp=35–36}}|group=note}} [[Baldwin II, Latin Emperor|Baldwin II]] in late May.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|pp=89, 134}} According to the first treaty, Villehardouin acknowledged Charles's suzerainty and made Charles's younger son, [[Philip of Sicily|Philip]], his heir, also stipulating that Charles would inherit Achaea if Philip died childless.{{sfn|Fine|2009|p=168}}{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=114}} Baldwin confirmed the first agreement and renounced his claims to suzerainty over his vassals in favour of Charles.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=114}}{{sfn|Fine|2009|p=170}} Charles pledged that he would assist Baldwin in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], in exchange for one third of the conquered lands.{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|pp=94, 137}}{{sfn|Harris|2014|p=202}}

[[File:Enthauptung Konradins.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A young man who holds a sword above his head stands by an other young man who is kneeling.|Charles's sixteen-year-old enemy, [[Conradin]], is executed in Naples (1268).]]

Charles returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of Poggibonsi, but it did not fall until the end of November.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=101}} Manfred's staunchest supporters had meanwhile fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade Conrad IV's 15-year-old son [[Conradin]] to assert his hereditary right to the Kingdom of Sicily.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=103}} After Conradin accepted their proposal, Manfred's former vicar in Sicily, [[Conrad Capece]], returned to the island and stirred up a revolt.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=103}} At Capece's request [[Muhammad I al-Mustansir]], the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsid caliph of Tunis]],{{sfn|Abulafia|2000|p=105}} allowed Manfred's former ally, [[Frederick of Castile]], to invade Sicily from North Africa.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=99, 103}} Frederick's brother, [[Henry of Castile the Senator|Henry]]—who had been elected senator of Rome—also offered support to Conradin.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=103}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=87}} Henry had been Charles's friend, but Charles had failed to repay a loan to him.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=99}}

Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=105}} His supporters' revolt was spreading from Sicily to Calabria; the Saracens of Lucera also rose up.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=105}}{{sfn|Metcalfe|2009|p=292}} Pope Clement urged Charles to return to the Regno, but he continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met with the Pope.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=105}} In April, the Pope made Charles [[imperial vicar]] of Tuscany "during the vacancy of the empire", a move of dubious legality.{{sfn|Partner|1972|pp=270, 272}}{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=135}} Charles marched to southern Italy and laid siege to Lucera, but he then had to hurry north to prevent Conradin's invasion of [[Abruzzo]] in late August.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=109}} At the [[Battle of Tagliacozzo]], on 23{{nbs}}August 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but a sudden charge by Charles's reserve routed Conradin's army.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=109}}

The burghers of [[Potenza]], [[Aversa]] and other towns in [[Basilicata]] and Apulia massacred their fellows who had agitated on Conradin's behalf, but the Sicilians and the Saracens of Lucera did not surrender.{{sfn|Housley|1982|p=19}}{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=118, 124}} Charles marched to Rome where he was again elected senator in September.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=118}} He appointed new officials to administer justice and collect state revenues.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=118}} New coins bearing his name were struck.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=118}} During the following decade, Rome was ruled by Charles's vicars, each appointed for one year.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=118}}

Conradin was captured at [[Torre Astura]].{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=114}} Most of his retainers were summarily executed, but Conradin and his friend, [[Frederick I, Margrave of Baden]], were brought to trial for robbery and treason in Naples.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|pp=114–115}} They were sentenced to death and beheaded on 29{{nbsp}}October.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=115}} [[Conrad of Antioch]] was Conradin's only partisan to be released, but only after his wife threatened to execute the Guelph lords she held captive in her castle.{{sfn|Runciman|1958|p=114}} The Ghibelline noblemen of the Regno fled to the court of [[Peter III of Aragon]], who had married Manfred's daughter [[Constance II of Sicily|Constance]].{{sfn|Dunbabin|1998|p=99}}