Editing Charles II of England (section)

== Foreign policy and marriage ==
[[File:English School - King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza.png|300px|thumb|Charles and Catherine]]
Since 1640, Portugal had been fighting a [[Portuguese Restoration War|war against Spain]] to restore its independence after a [[dynastic union]] of 60 years between the crowns of Spain and Portugal. Portugal had been helped by France, but in the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]] in 1659 Portugal was abandoned by its French ally. Negotiations with Portugal for Charles's marriage to [[Catherine of Braganza]] began during his father's reign. Upon the restoration, [[Luisa de Guzmán|Queen Luísa of Portugal]], acting as regent, reopened negotiations with England that resulted in an alliance.<ref>Clyde L. Gros, "The Anglo-Portuguese Marriage of 1662" ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 10#3 (1930), pp. 313–352 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2506378 online]</ref> On 23 June 1661, a marriage treaty was signed; England acquired Catherine's [[dowry]] of the port of [[Portuguese Tangier|Tangier]] in North Africa, the [[Seven Islands of Bombay]] in India (which had a major influence on the development of the [[British Empire]]), valuable trading privileges in Brazil and the [[East Indies]], religious and commercial freedom in Portugal, and two million Portuguese crowns (equivalent to £300,000 then{{efn|Equivalent to between £42.7 million (real cost) and £12.7 billion (economic share) as of 2021.<ref>"Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present", [https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth], 2023</ref>}}). Portugal obtained military and naval support against Spain and liberty of worship for Catherine.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} Catherine journeyed from Portugal to [[Portsmouth]] on 13–14 May 1662,{{sfn|Wynne|2004}} but was not visited by Charles there until 20 May. The next day the couple were married at Portsmouth in two ceremonies—a Catholic one conducted in secret, followed by a public Anglican service.{{sfn|Wynne|2004}}

The same year, in an unpopular move, Charles [[Sale of Dunkirk|sold Dunkirk]] to King Louis XIV of France for about £375,000.{{sfn|Miller|1991|pp=93, 99}} The channel port, although a valuable strategic outpost, was a drain on Charles's limited finances, as it cost the Treasury £321,000 per year.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=184}}

[[File:CharlesII1667Medal.jpg|thumb|left|Charles II in profile on a medal struck in 1667 by [[John Roettier]] to commemorate the [[Second Dutch War]]|alt=Obverse of medal]]
Before Charles's restoration, the [[Navigation Acts]] of 1650 had hurt [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] trade by giving English vessels a monopoly, and had started the [[First Dutch War]] (1652–1654). To lay foundations for a new beginning, envoys of the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] appeared in November 1660 with the [[Dutch Gift]].{{sfn|Israel|1998|pp=749–750}} The [[Second Dutch War]] (1665–1667) was started by English attempts to muscle in on Dutch possessions in Africa and North America. The conflict began well for the English, with the capture of [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed New York in honour of Charles's brother James, Duke of York) and a victory at the [[Battle of Lowestoft]], but in 1667 the Dutch launched a surprise attack on England (the [[Raid on the Medway]]) when they sailed up the [[River Thames]] to where a major part of the English fleet was docked. Almost all of the ships were sunk except for the flagship, [[HMS Royal Charles (1660)|''Royal Charles'']], which was taken back to the Netherlands as a [[Prize (law)|prize]].{{efn|The ship's [[Transom (nautical)|transom]] is on display at the [[Rijksmuseum]] in Amsterdam.}} The Second Dutch War ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]].

As a result of the Second Dutch War, Charles dismissed Lord Clarendon, whom he used as a scapegoat for the war.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=250–251}} Clarendon fled to France when impeached for [[high treason]] (which carried the penalty of death). Power passed to five politicians known collectively by a whimsical<!--Macaulay, (1849) ''The History of England from the Accession of James II'', p.152--> [[acronym]] as the [[Cabal]]—the [[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford|Baron ''Clifford'']], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Earl of ''Arlington'']], [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Duke of ''Buckingham'']], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Baron ''Ashley'' (afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury)]] and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Duke of ''Lauderdale'']]. In fact, the Cabal rarely acted in concert, and the court was often divided between two factions led by Arlington and Buckingham, with Arlington the more successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Hutton|1989|p=254}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|pp=175–176}}.</ref>

In 1668, England allied itself with Sweden and with its former enemy the Netherlands to oppose Louis XIV in the [[War of Devolution]]. Louis made peace with the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]], but he continued to maintain his aggressive intentions towards the Netherlands. In 1670, Charles, seeking to solve his financial troubles, agreed to the [[Treaty of Dover]], under which Louis would pay him £160,000 each year. In exchange, Charles agreed to supply Louis with troops and to announce his conversion to Catholicism "as soon as the welfare of his kingdom will permit".{{sfn|Fraser|1979|p=275}} Louis was to provide him with 6,000 troops to suppress those who opposed the conversion. Charles endeavoured to ensure that the Treaty—especially the conversion clause—remained secret.<ref>{{harvnb|Fraser|1979|pp=275–276}}; {{harvnb|Miller|1991|p= 180}}.</ref> It remains unclear whether Charles ever seriously intended to convert.<ref>For doubts over his intention to convert before 1685 see, for example, {{harvnb|Seaward|2004}}; for doubts over his intention to convert on his deathbed see, for example, {{harvnb|Hutton|1989|pp=443, 456}}.</ref>

Meanwhile, by a series of five charters, Charles granted the [[East India Company]] the rights to autonomous government of its territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops, to form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and [[criminal jurisdiction]] over its possessions in the Indies.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=835}} Earlier in 1668 he leased the islands of [[Bombay]] to the company for a nominal sum of £10 paid in gold.{{sfn|British Library Learning}} The Portuguese territories that Catherine brought with her as a dowry proved too expensive to maintain; [[English Tangier|Tangier]] was abandoned in 1684.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|p=426}} In 1670, Charles granted control of the entire [[Hudson Bay]] drainage basin to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] by royal charter, and named the territory [[Rupert's Land]], after his cousin [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]], the company's first governor.{{sfn|''Hudson's Bay Company''|2017}}