Editing Champa (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Champa|Timeline of Champa}}

===Sources of foreign cultural influence===
Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from [[Cambodia]], China, [[Java]], and [[India]] amongst others.<ref group=note>The majority of colonial era scholarship had popularized a generic orientalist assumption that Southeast Asian history has always been profoundly driven by "external forces" from the civilizations of India and China. By this narrative, Champa was glimpsed as a merely shadow, "cultural zone" of Indian civilization.{{harv|Lockhart|2011|pp=4–5}}</ref><ref group=note>Some of the colonial era scholars and Indologists often favored the "Champa kingdom" when it maintained strong affirmation with Indian influence such as Hinduism, and showed less interest when "exotic oriental" Indianized features in Champa began declining by the 11th century as the Cham appeared having tendencies toward localization and Islam.{{harv|Lockhart|2011|pp=6–7}} The shrink of Indian traces in Champa (''or'' the downfall of Cham civilization) was assumed through the eyes of some colonial-era French researchers (such as [[Jeanne Leuba]]) as the corruption of pure Hinduism and Buddhism due to syncreticizing with local traditions. Leuba also took blame on Islam for the decline of Champa.{{harv|Lockhart|2011|pp=7–8}}</ref><ref group=note>Along with a global renewal of Cham studies in the late 1980s, a group of French academics favored a reevaluation/redefinition the importance of Cham and [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|indigenous]] history in the making of Southeast Asia. This trend rejected earlier colonial-era scholarship's Eurocentric framework "externalist thesis" for denying and downplaying indigenous Southeast Asian civilizations, slamming them as deliberate attempts to justify colonialism.</ref> An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in modern central Vietnam, and [[Lâm Ấp]], a predecessor state in the region, began its existence in 192 CE.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U014Ik_cvAC&pg=PA20 |title=Vietnam in Pictures|author=Stacy Taus-Bolstad|year=2003|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|page=20|isbn=0-8225-4678-7|access-date=9 January 2011}}</ref> In the 4th century CE, wars with the neighbouring [[Kingdom of Funan]] in [[Cambodia]] and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of [[Culture of India|Indian culture]] into Cham society. [[Sanskrit]] was adopted as a scholarly language, and [[Hinduism]], especially [[Shaivism]], became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century CE, the Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although [[Hinduism]] was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the [[spice trade]], which stretched from the [[Persian Gulf]] to [[South China]], and later in the [[Arab]] maritime routes in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] as a supplier of [[aloe]].

Despite the frequent wars between the [[Chams|Cham]] and the [[Khmer people|Khmer]], the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of [[Srivijaya]] and later with the [[Majapahit]] of the [[Malay Archipelago]], its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of [[Ma-i]], [[Rajahnate of Butuan|Butuan]], and [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]] in the modern Philippines.

Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around [[Aceh]] confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] language [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]] as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe the Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium BCE.{{sfn|Grant|2005|p=41}}{{sfn|Grant|2005|p=42}} However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary.{{sfn|Sidwell|2005|p=211}} [[Tsat language|Tsat]], a northern Chamic language spoken by the [[Utsul]] on the [[Hainan]] Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate.{{sfn|Grant|2005|p=42}} Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in [[Cham language|Eastern Cham]] (in contact with Vietnamese).{{sfn|Thurgood|2021|p=676}} Eastern Cham has developed a quasi-registral, incipiently [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal system]].{{sfn|Thurgood|2021|p=680}} After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming [[Haroi language|Haroi]], which has reversal [[Bahnaric]] linguistic influences.{{sfn|Grant|2005|p=39}}

===Founding legend===
According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by [[Lady Po Nagar]]–the divine mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the Moon, arrived in modern Central Vietnam and founded the kingdom, but a [[typhoon]] drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The [[Po Nagar]] temple built in [[Nha Trang]] during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century was dedicated to her. Her portrayal image in the temple is said to date from 965 CE, it is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne.{{sfn|Marrison|1985|p=51}} She is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition that dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period.{{sfn|Miksic|Yian|2016|p=435}}

===Formation and growth===
[[File:尖城_Chamcia_-_Couple_from_Champa_-_Boxer_Codex_(1590).jpg|thumb|238x238px|Depiction of a couple of highland man and Cham lady in the [[Boxer Codex]] from 1590]]
[[File:Pottery vase Sa Huynh Culture.JPG|thumb|222px|right|Pottery vase of the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]], 1000 BCE. The [[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huỳnh people]] were the prehistoric ancestors of all Chamic peoples.]]
The [[Chams]] descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from [[Borneo]] about the time of the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] between 1000 BCE and 200 CE, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom.{{sfn|Higham|2014|p=317}} The [[Cham language]] is part of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family. According to one study, Cham is related most closely to modern [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] in northern Sumatra.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBGYb84A7SAC&q=Cham+kelantanese&pg=PA25|title=From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects|access-date=28 December 2014|isbn=9780824821319|last1=Thurgood|first1=Graham|year=1999|publisher=University of Hawaii Press }}</ref>

The [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day [[Central Vietnam]] coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and had commercial links across the South China Sea with the Philippine archipelago and even with [[Taiwan]] (through [[Philippine jade culture|Maritime Jade Road]], [[Kalanay Cave|Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere]]), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and are no longer hesitant in linking with the ancestors of the Austronesian [[Cham people|Cham]] and [[Chamic]]-speaking peoples.{{sfn|Tran|Lockhart|2011|p=26}}

While [[Northern Vietnam]] [[Kinh]] people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a [[sinicized]] culture, [[Cham people]] carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of [[South Asian]] Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no [[matrilineal]] South Asian [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]], and this fits with the [[matrilocal]] structure of Cham families.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=He |first1=Jun-Dong |last2=Peng |first2=Min-Sheng |last3=Quang |first3=Huy Ho |last4=Dang |first4=Khoa Pham |last5=Trieu |first5=An Vu |last6=Wu |first6=Shi-Fang |last7=Jin |first7=Jie-Qiong |last8=Murphy |first8=Robert W. |last9=Yao |first9=Yong-Gang |last10=Zhang |first10=Ya-Ping |editor1-last=Kayser |editor1-first=Manfred |title=Patrilineal Perspective on the Austronesian Diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia |journal=PLOS ONE |date=7 May 2012 |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=e36437 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0036437 |pmid=22586471 |pmc=3346718 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...736437H |doi-access=free }}</ref> And compared to other Vietnamese ethnic groups, the Cham do not share ancestry with southern Han Chinese, along with Austronesian-speaking Mang.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |last2=Nguyen |first2=Thuy Duong |last3=Nguyen |first3=Dang Ton |last4=Nguyen |first4=Van Phong |last5=Pakendorf |first5=Brigitte |last6=Nong |first6=Van Hai |last7=Stoneking |first7=Mark |title=Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=28 April 2020 |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=2503–2519 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa099 |pmid=32344428 |pmc=7475039 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Champa was known to the Chinese as 林邑 ''[[Lâm Ấp|Linyi]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Champa-ancient-kingdom-Indochina|title=Champa – ancient kingdom, Indochina|date=17 July 2023 }}</ref> in Mandarin, ''Lam Yap'' in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, ''Lâm Ấp'' (which is the [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese]] pronunciation of 林邑). The state of Champa was founded in 192 CE by [[Khu Liên]] (Ou Lian), an official of the [[Han dynasty#Eastern Han|Eastern Han dynasty]] of China in [[Tượng Lâm|Xianglin]] who rebelled against Chinese rule in 192.<ref name="Taus-Bolstad2003">{{cite book|author=Stacy Taus-Bolstad|title=Vietnam in Pictures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3U014Ik_cvAC&pg=PA20|year=2003|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|isbn=978-0-8225-4678-8|pages=20–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Haywood|first1=John|last2=Jotischky|first2=Andrew|last3=McGlynn|first3=Sean|title=Historical Atlas of the Medieval World, AD 600–1492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQMUNgAACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Barnes & Noble|isbn=978-0-7607-1976-3|page=3.31}}</ref><ref group=note>Historians like Vickery criticize the use of Chinese and Vietnamese sources uncritically in reconstructing the history of Champa.</ref>

[[File:Po Nagar temple Cham inscription.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Epigraph of king [[Jaya Paramesvaravarman II]] (r. 1220–1254), the liberator of Champa from Khmer rule.|left]]
Around the 4th century CE, Cham polities began to absorb much of [[Indianised Kingdom|Indic influences]], probably through its neighbor, [[Funan Kingdom|Funan]]. [[Hinduism]] was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick [[Hindu temple]]s. The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is [[Bhadravarman I|Bhadravarman]],{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=378}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.eb.com/topic/105118|title=Britannica Academic|website=m.eb.com}}</ref><ref name="britencyclopedia">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Champa-ancient-kingdom-Indochina |title=Champa |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621232356/https://www.britannica.com/place/Champa-ancient-kingdom-Indochina |archive-date=21 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> who reigned from 380 to 413 CE.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=48}} At [[Mỹ Sơn]], King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara,{{sfn|Higham|2014|p=324}} whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the [[Hindu]] god of gods [[Shiva]].{{sfn|Ngô|2002|p=31}} The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=49}}{{sfn|Ngô|2002|pp=38–39}}{{sfn|Ngô|2005|pp=55ff}}

Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century CE, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King [[Gangaraja]] (r. 413–?) of Champa was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the [[Ganges River]], [[Northeast India]]. His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=57}}{{sfn|Nakamura|2020|p=19}} [[George Coedès]] notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along the early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were the key factors of the process.{{sfn|Nakamura|2020|pp=19–20}} On the other hand, [[Paul Mus]] suggests the reason for the peaceful acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite was likely related to the tropical [[monsoon]] climate background shared by areas like the [[Bay of Bengal]], coastal [[mainland Southeast Asia]] all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice [[animism]], most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To the early Southeast Asian peoples, [[Hinduism]] was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in peaceful conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism in Champa with little resistance.{{sfn|Nakamura|2020|p=21}}

[[Rudravarman I]] of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 CE. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He was succeeded by his son [[Sambhuvarman]] (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the [[Sui Empire]] launched an [[Sui–Lâm Ấp war|invasion]] of [[Lam Ap]], overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at [[Tra Kieu]].{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|pp=70–71}} He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, [[Kandarpadharma]], who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, [[Prabhasadharma]], who died in 645.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|pp=77–78}}

===Champa at its height===
Several granite tablets and inscriptions from [[My Son]], [[Tra Kieu]], [[Hue]], [[Khánh Hòa Province|Khanh Hoa]] dated 653–687 report a Cham king named [[Vikrantavarman I|Jaya Prakāśadharma]] who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thorough knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down the foundations for the [[Art of Champa|Champa art]] and architectural styles.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|pp=71–72}} He also sent many embassies regularly to the [[Tang Empire]] and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on par with the Korean kingdoms of [[Koguryŏ]] in the Northeast and [[Baekje]] in the East –  "though the latter was rivaled by Japan."{{sfn|Momorki|2011|pp=122–123}}

[[File:Southeast Asia 800AD.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Southeast Asia {{circa}} 800 CE. Champa situating between major medieval trade routes in Southeast Asia through the [[South China Sea]].]]

Between the 7th to 10th centuries CE, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled the trade in spices and silk in the [[South China Sea]], between China, the [[List of islands of Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago]] and [[India]]. They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding.<ref>Lê Thành Khôi, ''Histoire du Vietnam'', p. 109.</ref> However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring [[thalassocracy]] that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese ([[Javaka]], probably refers to [[Srivijaya]], ruler of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a [[Medang Kingdom|Javanese]] fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates,{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=91}}<ref name="Arts1984">{{cite book|author=SEAMEO Project in Archaeology and Fine Arts|title=Final report: Consultative Workshop on Research on Maritime Shipping and Trade Networks in Southeast Asia, I-W7, Cisarua, West Java, Indonesia, November 20–27, 1984|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Y3tAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1984|publisher=SPAFA Co-ordinating Unit|page=66|isbn=9789747809107}}</ref><ref name="Snellgrove2001">{{cite book|author=David L. Snellgrove|title=Khmer Civilization and Angkor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SJ1uAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=2001|publisher=Orchid Press|isbn=978-974-8304-95-3}}</ref> Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or [[Maluku Islands|Kunlun]] vessels in 774 and 787.<ref name="(Japan)1972">{{cite book|author=Tōyō Bunko (Japan)|title=Memoirs of the Research Department|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5nWAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1972|page=6}}{{cite book|author=Tōyō Bunko (Japan)|title=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBkkAQAAIAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1972|publisher=Toyo Bunko|page=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings of the Symposium on 100 Years Development of Krakatau and Its Surroundings, Jakarta, 23–27 August 1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D9vaAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1985|publisher=Indonesian Institute of Sciences|page=8}}</ref><ref name="Society1934">{{cite book|author=Greater India Society|title=Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onEZAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1934|page=69}}</ref> In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near [[Phan Rang]].<ref name="Smith1979">{{cite book|author=Ralph Bernard Smith|title=Early South East Asia: essays in archaeology, history, and historical geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_lJuAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1979|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=447|isbn=978-0-19-713587-7}}</ref><ref name="Fisher1964">{{cite book|author=Charles Alfred Fisher|title=South-east Asia: a social, economic, and political geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLhAAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1964|publisher=Methuen|page=108|isbn=9789070080600}}</ref><ref name="RenardFund1986">{{cite book|author1=Ronald Duane Renard|author2=Mahāwitthayālai Phāyap. Walter F. Vella Fund|author3=University of Hawaii at Manoa. Center for Asian and Pacific Studies|title=Anuson Walter Vella|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZVuAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya|year=1986|publisher=Walter F. Vella Fund, Payap University|page=121}}</ref> The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by [[Indravarman I (Champa)|Indravarman I]] (r. 787–801) in 799.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=95}}

[[File:Buddha, Tượng Phật Đồng Dương, the Museum of Vietnamese History.jpg|thumb|right|Đồng Dương (Indrapura) Buddha statue, 9th century CE. [[Museum of Vietnamese History]]]]
In 875, a new Buddhist dynasty founded by [[Indravarman II (Champa)|Indravarman II]] (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of [[Indrapura (Champa)|Indrapura]], near [[My Son]] and ancient [[Tra Kieu|Simhapura]].{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=122}} [[Mahayana Buddhism]] eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion.{{sfn|Guy|2011|p=305}} Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture).{{sfn|Momorki|2011|p=126}} Unfortunately, a Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king [[Le Hoan]] of [[Dai Viet]], followed by [[Lưu Kế Tông]] (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983,{{sfn|Vickery|2011|pp=383–384}} brought mass destruction to Northern Champa.{{sfn|Tran|2011|p=268}} Indrapura was still one of the major centers of Champa until being surpassed by [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] in the 12th century.{{sfn|Vickery|2011|pp=385–389}}

===Relations and warfare with the Khmer and the Viet, c. 1000–1471===
The ''[[History of Song (book)|History of Song]]'' notes that to the east of Champa through a two-day journey lay the country of [[Ma-i]] at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with.

Afterwards, during the 1000s, [[Rajah]] Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine [[Rajahnate of Butuan]] instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the [[Chinese Empire]], which was later denied by the Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism for the Champa civilization.<ref>{{cite book | author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |last=Scott |first=William |title=Prehispanic Source Materials: For the Study of Philippine History |page=66 |location=Quezon City |publisher=New Day Publishers |year=1984 |edition=revised |isbn=9711002264}}</ref> However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the [[Emperor Zhenzong]] by presenting a memorial engraved on a golden tablet, some [[Chinese dragon|white dragon]] (''Bailong'' 白龍) [[camphor]], [[Moluccas|Moluccan]] cloves, and a [[South China Sea|South Sea]] slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice.<ref>''Song Shih'' Chapter 7 to 8</ref>

The Champa civilization and what would later be the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] which was still Hindu at that time and known as [[Lupah Sug]], which is also in the Philippines, engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries, establishing trading centers. There they were called Orang Dampuan and, due to their wealth, many of them were killed by native Sulu Buranuns.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Filipino Moving Onward 5' 2007 Ed.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SIq_FvJUr40C&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=RA3-PA18-IA1|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-4154-0|pages=3–}}</ref> The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory killings by the Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine History Module-based Learning I' 2002 Ed.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITLRpPrrcykC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA39|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-3449-8|pages=39–}}</ref> The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa.<ref>{{cite book|title=Philippine History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&q=Orang+Dampuans&pg=PA46|year=2004|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-3934-9|pages=46–}}</ref>

[[File:Le Bayon (Angkor Thom) (2334986747).jpg|thumb|right|Bas reliefs from the [[Bayon]] Temple depicting battle scene between Cham (wearing helmets) and Khmer troops]]
The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, [[Khmer–Cham wars|Khmer invasions]] were frequent. The [[Khmer Empire]] conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king [[Jaya Harivarman I]] (r. 1148–1167).{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=164}} Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by [[Suryavarman II]] in summer 1150 also was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=160}}{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=162}} Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunifying under Jaya Harivarman by 1161.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=165}}{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=397}} After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 [[Jaya Indravarman IV]] (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on [[Angkor]], capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying the Khmer king, leading to a Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=166}}{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=169}} [[Jayavarman VII]] of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and making it a dependency of the [[Khmer Empire]] for 30 years.{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|p=171}}{{sfn|Cœdès|1968|pp=180–181}}{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=400}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chatterji |first1=Bijan Raj |title=Jayavarman  VII (1181–1201 A.D.) (The last of the great monarchs of Cambodia) |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1939 |volume=3 |pages=377–385 |jstor=44252387}}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Kingdom of Champa (1380) during the reign of King Che Bunga.png|thumb|right|Zenith of Champa territorial expansion during the reign of [[Che Bong Nga]] (r. 1360–1390)]]
Champa was subjected to a Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, [[Kublai Khan]] ordered the establishment of a mobile secretariat (''xingsheng'') in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia.{{sfn|Momorki|2011|p=127}} The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]] forcing the Cham king [[Indravarman V]] (r. 1258–1287) and [[Chế Mân|Prince Harijit]] to wage a guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with [[Dai Viet]], eventually repelling the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king [[Trần Nhân Tông]] spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged a marriage between his daughter, Princess [[Huyền Trân]], and Prince Harijit – now reigning as Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) – in 1306 in exchange for peace and territory.{{sfn|Vickery|2011|pp=404–405}}{{sfn|Hubert|2012|p=22}} From 1307 to 1401, not even a single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost all of its 14th-century history has to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources.{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=406}} Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No other grand temple or other construction project was built after 1300.{{sfn|Miksic|Yian|2016|p=494}} These facts marked the beginning of Champa's decline.{{sfn|Miksic|Yian|2016|p=493}}

From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, [[Che Bong Nga]], who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa.{{sfn|Whitmore|2011|pp=186–187}} He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during the deadly [[Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390)]], sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing the Dai Viet to its collapse.{{sfn|Kiernan|2009|p=104}}{{sfn|Whitmore|2011|pp=190–192}} Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war.{{sfn|Kiernan|2009|p=105}}{{sfn|Whitmore|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=406}}

After [[Che Bong Nga]], Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under a new dynasty of [[Ko Cheng|Jaya Simhavarman VI]] (r. 1390–1400).{{sfn|Hubert|2012|p=22}} His successor [[Indravarman VI]] (r. 1400–1441) reigned for the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the [[Mekong Delta]] amidst the decline of the [[Khmer Empire|Angkorian Empire]]. One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince [[Virabhadravarman|Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman]], became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under the strong king [[Le Thanh Tong]] launched an [[Champa–Đại Việt War (1471)|invasion of Champa in early 1471]], decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa.{{sfn|Kiernan|2009|pp=109–110}}{{sfn|Vickery|2011|p=407. Southern Champa however remained intact}} For early historians like [[Georges Maspero]], "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom."{{sfn|Tran|Lockhart|2011|p=10}} Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa as becoming a "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization.{{sfn|Nakamura|2020|p=32}}

The relationship between Champa and the Javanese states is also recorded in various historical chronicles, mainly in the 15th and 16th centuries. Especially the marriage relationship between the princesses of Champa and the kings of Java. The [[Cham people]] were also one of the main pioneers in the [[Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]] on the north coast of [[Central Java]]. One of the famous Islamic scholars of Champa descent in Java is [[Sunan Ampel]], one of the nine [[Walisanga]]. He had a Champa mother.<ref>{{cite book  | last =Muljana  | first =Prof. Dr. Slamet  | title = Runtuhnya Karajan Hindu-Jawa Dan Timbulnya Negara–Negara Islam Di Nusantara   | publisher =LKiS  | year =2005  | location =Yogyakarta  | pages =86–101  | isbn = 979-8451-16-3}}</ref>

===Decline===
{{See also|History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|Nam tiến}}
[[File:VietnamMac1540.gif|thumb|Territory of Champa (light green) after [[Champa–Đại Việt War (1471)]]]]
[[File:1801 Cary Map of the East Indies and Southeast Asia signifying Champa.png|thumb|235x235px|1801 map of Southeast Asia by [[John Cary]] showing [[Panduranga (Champa)|Panduranga]] Champa (Tsiompa)]]
[[File:Kiepert, Heinrich 1856 map of Hinter Indien (cropped).png|thumb|right|Former Cham territories after the Vietnamese annexation of Panduranga in 1832.]]
[[File:Chamic groups in Vietnam.png|thumb|Current distribution of Chams, [[Roglai language|Roglai]] and [[Chru language|Chru]] speakers in Vietnam.]]
In the [[Cham–Vietnamese War (1471)]], Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa [[Maha Sajan|Tra Toan]], who died along his way to the north in captivity.{{sfn|Kiernan|2009|p=110}}{{sfn|Hubert|2012|p=23}} Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to the Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with additional notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered.{{sfn|Kiernan|2009|pp=109–110}} The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near [[Nha Trang]] and [[Phan Rang]] with many Chams fleeing to [[Cambodia]].{{sfn|Juergensmeyer|Roof|2011|p=1210}}{{sfn|Schliesinger|2015|p=18}}

Champa was reduced to the principalities of [[Panduranga (Champa)|Panduranga]] and [[Kauthara]] at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by the Vietnamese in 1653.{{sfn|Miksic|Yian|2016|p=494}} From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in [[Huế]].

The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when [[Minh Mang]] of Vietnam began his purge against rival [[Le Van Duyet]]'s faction, and accused the Cham leaders of supporting Duyet.{{sfn|Wong|2008|p=67}} Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king [[Po Phaok The]] and the vice-king [[Po Dhar Kaok]] to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are the [[Ninh Thuan province|Ninh Thuan]] and [[Binh Thuan province]]s.{{sfn|Wong|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Weber|2012|pp=164–166}}{{sfn|Weber|2012|pp=166–173}}

To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in ''phủ'' [[Ninh Thuan]] while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as ''cải thổ quy lưu'' ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and following Vietnamese customs became strictly mandatory for the Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly, systematically destroyed.{{sfn|Wong|2008|pp=72–74}} Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected to heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions.{{sfn|Wong|2008|p=73}} Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib [[Ja Thak Wa]] – a Cham Bani cleric – which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a [[Champa (Ja Thak Wa)|Cham state]] for a short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces.{{sfn|Weber|2012|p=165}}{{sfn|Hubert|2012|p=25}}

The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their and remnant of Champa's fate. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to [[forced assimilation]] by the Vietnamese,{{sfn|Weber|2012|pp=173–175}}{{sfn|Weber|2012|pp=176–178}} while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by the Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were razed to the ground. Temples were set on fire.{{sfn|Weber|2012|p=174}} Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions.{{sfn|Wong|2008|p=71}}

After finalizing these heavy-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared the Cham of Panduranga a ''Tân Dân'' (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese.{{sfn|Wong|2008|p=74}} Minh Mang's son and successor [[Thiệu Trị]], however, reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minorities. Under Thiệu Trị and [[Tu Duc]], the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition.{{sfn|Lockhart|2011|p=14}}

Only a small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga remained in 1885 when the French completed their [[French conquest of Vietnam|acquisition of Vietnam]]. The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, putting an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. But French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of the [[Can Vuong movement]] in Binh Thuan.{{sfn|Kiernan|2019|p=328}}