Editing Cappadocia (section)

==History==
===Ancient history===
{{see also|Cappadocia (satrapy)|List of rulers of Cappadocia}}
{{multiple image
| title             = Achaemenid Cappadocia
| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Xerxes I tomb Cappadocian soldier circa 470 BCE cleaned up.jpg
| caption1          = Cappadocian soldier of the [[Achaemenid army]] circa 470 BC. [[Xerxes I]] tomb relief.
| image2            = Achaemenid Cappadocia.jpg
| caption2          = Location of Achaemenid Cappadocia.<ref>[[:File:Map of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|Map of the Achaemenid Empire]]</ref>
}}

Cappadocia was known as [[Hittite empire|Hatti]] in the late [[Bronze Age]], and was the homeland of the [[Hittites|Hittite]] power centred at [[Hattusa]]. After the fall of the Hittite Empire, with the decline of the Syro-Cappadocians ([[Mushki]]) after their defeat by the [[Lydia]]n king [[Croesus]] in the 6th century BC, Cappadocia was ruled by a sort of [[feudal]] aristocracy, dwelling in strong castles and keeping the peasants in a servile condition, which later made them apt to foreign slavery. It was included in the third [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[satrap]]y in the division established by [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]] but continued to be governed by rulers of its own, none apparently supreme over the whole country and all more or less tributaries of the [[Great King]].{{sfn|Bunbury|Hogarth|1911|p=287}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDcd41aCRLQC&q=Cappadocia+was+known+as+Hatti+in+the+late+Bronze+Age,+and+was+the+homeland+of+the+Hittite+power+centred+at+Hattusa.&pg=PA282|title=Natural Heritage from East to West: Case studies from 6 EU countries|date=2010-01-19|isbn=9783642015779|last1=Evelpidou|first1=Niki|last2=Figueiredo|first2=Tomás|last3=Mauro|first3=Francesco|last4=Tecim|first4=Vahap|last5=Vassilopoulos|first5=Andreas|publisher=Springer }}</ref>

===Kingdom of Cappadocia===
{{main|Kingdom of Cappadocia}}
After ending the Persian Empire, [[Alexander the Great]] tried to rule the area through one of his military commanders. But [[Ariarathes I of Cappadocia|Ariarathes]], previously satrap of the region, declared himself king of the Cappadocians. As Ariarathes I (332–322&nbsp;BC), he was a successful ruler, and he extended the borders of the Cappadocian Kingdom as far as to the [[Black Sea]]. The kingdom of Cappadocia lived in peace until the death of Alexander. The previous empire was then divided into many parts, and Cappadocia fell to [[Eumenes]]. His claims were made good in 322&nbsp;BC by the regent [[Perdiccas]], who crucified Ariarathes; but in the dissensions which brought about Eumenes's death, [[Ariarathes II of Cappadocia|Ariarathes II]], the adopted son of Ariarathes I, recovered his inheritance and left it to a line of successors, who mostly bore the name of the founder of the [[List of rulers of Cappadocia|dynasty]].{{sfn|Bunbury|Hogarth|1911|p=287}}

Persian colonists in the Cappadocian kingdom, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice [[Zoroastrianism]]. [[Strabo]], observing them in the first century BC, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as [[fire temple]]s.<ref name="books.google.nl">Mary Boyce. [https://books.google.com/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&dq=armenians+zoroastrianism+christianity&pg=PA84 ''Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices''] Psychology Press, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0415239028}} p. 85</ref> Strabo furthermore relates, were "noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning."<ref name="books.google.nl"/> According to Strabo, who wrote during the time of [[Augustus]] ({{Reign|27 BC|AD 14}}), almost three hundred years after the fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, there remained only traces of Persians in western [[Asia Minor]]; however, he considered Cappadocia "almost a living part of Persia".{{sfn|Raditsa|1983|page=107}}

Under [[Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia|Ariarathes&nbsp;IV]], Cappadocia came into relations with [[Roman Republic|Rome]], first as a foe espousing the cause of [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus the Great]], then as an ally against [[Perseus of Macedon]]. The kings henceforward threw in their lot with the Republic as against the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]], to whom they had been from time to time tributary. [[Ariarathes V of Cappadocia|Ariarathes&nbsp;V]] marched with the Roman [[proconsul]] [[Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus]] against [[Eumenes III|Aristonicus]], a claimant to the throne of [[Pergamon]], and their forces were annihilated (130&nbsp;BC). The imbroglio which followed his death ultimately led to interference by the rising power of [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] and the intrigues and wars which ended in the failure of the dynasty.{{sfn|Bunbury|Hogarth|1911|p=287}}<ref>The coinage of Cappadocian kings was quite extensive and produced by highest standards of the time. See [http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=288 Asia Minor Coins – regal Cappadocian coins]</ref>

===Roman and early Christian period===
{{main|Cappadocia (Roman province)}}
[[File:Tyana, Cappadocia, Turkey (23777522658).jpg|thumb|Ancient city of [[Tyana]], Cappadocia]]
[[File:Orophernes of Cappadocia.jpg|thumb|left|King [[Orophernes of Cappadocia]].]]
The Cappadocians, supported by Rome against [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]], elected a native lord, [[Ariobarzanes I Philoromaios of Cappadocia|Ariobarzanes]], to succeed (93&nbsp;BC); but in the same year [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian]] troops under [[Tigranes the Great]] entered Cappadocia, dethroned king Ariobarzanes and crowned [[Gordius of Cappadocia|Gordios]] as the new [[Client state|client-king]] of Cappadocia, thus creating a buffer zone against the encroaching Romans. It was not until Rome had deposed the Pontic and Armenian kings that the rule of Ariobarzanes was established (63&nbsp;BC). In the civil wars Cappadocia was first for [[Pompey]], then for [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], then for [[Mark Antony|Antony]], and finally, [[Augustus|Octavian]]. The Ariobarzanes dynasty came to an end, a Cappadocian nobleman [[Archelaus of Cappadocia|Archelaus]] was given the throne, by favour first of Antony and then of Octavian, and maintained tributary independence until AD&nbsp;17, when the emperor [[Tiberius]], whom he had angered, summoned him to Rome and reduced Cappadocia to a Roman province.{{sfn|Bunbury|Hogarth|1911|pp=287–288}}

In 70 AD, [[Vespasian]] joined [[Lesser Armenia|Armenia Minor]] to Cappadocia, and made the combined province a frontier bulwark. It remained, under various provincial redistributions, part of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Empire]] for centuries.{{sfn|Bunbury|Hogarth|1911|p=288}} In 314, Cappadocia was the largest province of the Roman Empire, and was part of the [[Diocese of Pontus]].{{sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} In 371, the western part of the Cappadocia province was divided into ''Cappadocia Prima'', with its capital at Caesarea (modern-day Kayseri); and ''Cappadocia Secunda'', with its capital at [[Tyana]].{{sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} By 386, the region to the east of Caesarea had become part of ''Armenia Secunda'', while the northeast had become part of ''Armenia Prima''.{{sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} Cappadocia largely consisted of major estates, owned by the Roman emperors or wealthy local families.{{sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} The Cappadocian provinces became more important in the latter part of the 4th century, as the Romans were involved with the [[Sasanian Empire]] over control of [[Mesopotamia]] and "Armenia beyond the Euphrates".{{sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} Cappadocia, now well into the Roman era, still retained a significant [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] character; Stephen Mitchell notes that "many inhabitants of Cappadocia were of [[Persian people|Persian]] descent and Iranian fire worship is attested as late as 465"{{Sfn|Mitchell|2018|page=290}} and the area also contained a sizeable Armenian population since antiquity.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=43}} For most of the [[Byzantine]] era it remained relatively undisturbed by the conflicts in the area with the Sasanian Empire, but the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Persian Wars of the 610s and 620s]] placed Cappadocia on the frontline for the first time since the first century.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=21}}

The exact date of arrival of Christianity in uncertain, but latest from the third century it was firmly established in society and the Church was fully developed.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=139}} The [[Cappadocian Fathers]] of the 4th century were integral to much of early [[Christian philosophy]]. It also produced, among other people, [[John of Cappadocia]], [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] from 517 to 520, and [[Macrina the Younger|Macrina]], an early champion of women's monasticism.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=184}} The region suffered [[famine]] in 368 described as "the most severe ever remembered" by [[Gregory of Nazianzus]]:

[[File:Göreme-12.jpg|thumb|left|An early Christian [[Hermitage (religious retreat)|hermitage]] in Cappadocia]]
<blockquote>The city was in distress and there was no source of assistance [...] The hardest part of all such distress is the insensibility and insatiability of those who possess supplies [...] Such are the buyers and sellers of corn [...] by his word and advice [<nowiki />[[Basil of Caesarea|Basil's]]<nowiki />] open the stores of those who possessed them, and so, according to the Scripture, dealt food to the hungry and satisfied the poor with bread [...] He gathered together the victims of the famine [...] and obtaining contributions of all sorts of food which can relieve famine, set before them basins of soup and such meat as was found preserved among us, on which the poor live [...] Such was our young furnisher of corn, and second [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]] [...] [But unlike Joseph, Basil's] services were gratuitous and his succour of the famine gained no profit, having only one object, to win kindly feelings by kindly treatment, and to gain by his rations of corn the heavenly blessings.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Hungry are Dying: Beggars and Bishops in Roman Cappadocia by Susan R. Holman</ref></blockquote>

This is similar to another account by [[Gregory of Nyssa]] that [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]] "ungrudgingly spent upon the poor his patrimony even before he was a priest, and most of all in the time of the famine, during which [Basil] was a ruler of the Church, though still a priest in the rank of presbyters; and afterwards did not hoard even what remained to him".<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Basil also famously constructed near Caeserea the [[Basileias]], a vast complex with hospices for sick, churches, quarters for travellers and facilities for doctors and nurses.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|pages=30,161}}

===Byzantine periods===
[[File:Fresco Agacalti (Ihlara Valley) Church 5.JPG|thumb|right| Ceiling fresco in Daniel Pantonassa Church, [[Ihlara valley|Ihlara Valley]].]]

The [[Early Muslim conquests|Arrival of Muslim Arab armies]] in the mid-seventh century resulted in the breakdown of civil and military order of the Eastern provinces and a colossal displacement of population.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=21}} Cappdocia became a border region of the Byzantine Empire, frequently raided by the Caliphate. From the 7th century, Cappadocia was divided between the [[Anatolic Theme|Anatolic]] and [[Armeniac Theme|Armeniac]] [[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]].{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=21}} The frontier zone between Caeserea (Kayseri) and Melitene became a no-man's land, in which the [[akritai]] and [[ghazis]] fought each other and which is remembered in the epic ''[[Digenes Akritas]]''.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|pages=24–25,43}} The warfare, consisting of the yearly [[Razzia (military)|razzias]] as well as major campaigns took a heavy toll on the cities and villages, especially on the favourite Arab lines of march.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=23}}

[[File:Arab-Byzantine frontier zone.svg|thumb|Between the 7th and 10th century, Cappadocia was a border region of the Byzantine Empire]]
Cappadocia contains several [[underground city|underground cities]] (see [[Kaymaklı Underground City]]), many of which were dug by Christians to provide protection during the Arab raids and [[persecution of Christians|periods of persecution]].<ref name="Demir"/> The underground cities have vast defence networks of traps throughout their many levels. These traps are very creative, including such devices as large round stones to block doors and holes in the ceiling through which the defenders may drop spears.

Throughout the Dark Ages to the Middle Byzantine period, [[Armenians in the Byzantine Empire|Armenians immigrated in significant numbers]] into Cappadocia, partly due to imperial policies.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=43}} The [[Arab]] historian [[Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani|Abu Al Faraj]] asserts the following about [[Armenian people|Armenian]] settlers in [[Sivas|Sebasteia]], during the 10th century:

<blockquote>
They [the Armenians] were assigned the Sebaste (now Siwas) district of Cappadocia. Their number grew to such an extent that they became valuable auxiliaries to the imperial armies. They were employed to garrison the fortresses reconquered from the Arabs (probably Membedj, Dolouk, etc.). They formed excellent infantry for the armies of Basileus in all wars, constantly fighting with courage and success alongside the Romans.<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Schlumberger
 |first=Gustave Léon
 |author-link=Gustave Schlumberger
 |year=1890
 |title=Un empereur byzantin au dixième siècle, Nicéphore Phocas
 |url=https://archive.org/details/unempereurbyzant00schluoft/page/250/mode/2up
 |location=Paris
 |publisher=Firmin-Didot
 |pages=250–251
}}</ref>
</blockquote>

As a result of the Byzantine military campaigns and the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]] invasion of Armenia, the Armenians spread into Cappadocia and eastward from [[Cilicia]] into the mountainous areas of northern [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] was eventually formed. This immigration was increased further after the decline of the local imperial power and the establishment of the [[Crusader States]] following the [[Fourth Crusade]]. To the crusaders, Cappadocia was ''terra Hermeniorum'', the land of the Armenians, due to the large number of Armenians settled there.<ref name="The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance">{{cite book | last = MacEvitt | first = Christopher | title = The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance | url = https://archive.org/details/crusadeschristia00mace | url-access = limited | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |year= 2008 | location = Philadelphia | page = [https://archive.org/details/crusadeschristia00mace/page/n64 56]| isbn = 9780812240504 }}</ref>

In the 9th–11th centuries, the region comprised the themes of [[Charsianon]] with its capital at the eponymous city and [[Cappadocia (theme)|Cappadocia]], which had first its capital in [[Nyssa (Cappadocia)|Nyssa]] and then at Koron, after Nyssa had been sacked by the Arabs in 838.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=22}} By the mid-tenth century, the region was again reorganised as much of the no-men's land was resettled, especially around the area of Larissa, [[Tzamandos]], and [[Lykandos]].{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=22}} After the Byzantine reconquests in the East finished, Cappadocia was again removed from the frontier and an increasingly demilitarised region in the eleventh century.{{sfn|Cooper|Decker|2012|page=31}}
[[File:Turkey-1879 (2215894943).jpg|thumb|left|Frescos inside [[Churches of Göreme|Tokali Kilise]], "Church of the Buckle".]]

===Turkish Cappadocia===

Following the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, various [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[clans]] under the leadership of the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]] began settling in [[Anatolia]]. With the rise of Turkish power in Anatolia, Cappadocia slowly became a tributary to the Turkish states that were established to the east and to the west; some of the native population converted to Islam<ref name="DH in Asia Minor">{{cite book|last=Vryonis|first=Speros|year=1971|title=The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-52-001597-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> with the rest forming the remaining [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian Greek]] population. By the end of the early 12th century, [[Anatolian Seljuks]] had established their sole dominance over the region. With the decline and the fall of the [[Konya]]-based Seljuks in the second half of the 13th century, they were gradually replaced by successive Turkic ruled states: the [[Karaman]]-based [[Bey]]lik of [[Karamanids|Karaman]] and then the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Cappadocia remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1922, when it became part of the modern state of [[History of Turkey|Turkey]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

A fundamental change occurred in between when a new urban center, [[Nevşehir]], was founded in the early 18th century by a [[grand vizier]] who was a native of the locality ([[Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha]]), to serve as regional capital, a role the city continues to assume to this day. In the meantime many former Cappadocians had shifted to a Turkish dialect (written in [[Greek alphabet]], ''[[Karamanli Turkish|Karamanlıca]]''), and where the [[Greek language]] was maintained (Sille, villages near Kayseri, Pharasa town and other nearby villages), it became heavily influenced by the surrounding Turkish. This dialect of [[Rûm|Eastern Roman]] Greek is known as ''[[Cappadocian Greek]]''. Following the foundation of Turkey in 1922, those who still identified with this pre-Islamic culture of Cappadocia were [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey|required to leave]], so this language is now only spoken by a handful of their descendants, most now located in modern Greece.{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}