Editing California State University (section)

=== California State Colleges ===
[[File:Homecoming in the 1940's at Cal State LA.jpg|thumb|[[California State University, Los Angeles]] was founded in 1947.]]
[[File:View of the Sacramento State College campus site, 1947.gif|thumb|right|Aerial view of the future campus of [[California State University, Sacramento]], founded in 1947.]]

During the 1950s, the state colleges' peculiar mix of fiscal centralization and operational decentralization began to look rather incongruous in comparison to the highly centralized University of California (then on the brink of its own decentralization project) and the highly decentralized local school districts around the state which operated K–12 schools and junior colleges—all of which enjoyed much more autonomy from the rest of the state government than the state colleges.  In particular, several of the state college presidents had come to strongly dislike the State Board of Education and State Superintendent of Public Instruction Roy E. Simpson, whom the presidents felt were too deferential to the University of California.  Five state college presidents led the movement in the late 1950s for more autonomy from the state government: [[Glenn Dumke]] at San Francisco State (who had succeeded Leonard in 1957), Arnold Joyal at Fresno State, John T. Wahlquist at San Jose State, [[Julian A. McPhee]] at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, and [[Malcolm Love]] at San Diego State.<ref name="Douglass_Page_252">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=252}}</ref>  They had three main objectives: (1) a systemwide board independent of the rest of the state government; (2) the right to award professional degrees in engineering and the doctorate in the field of education;<ref name="Douglass_Page_252" /> and (3) state funding for research at the state college level.<ref name="Douglass_Page_253">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=253}}</ref>

The state legislature was limited to merely suggesting locations to the UC Board of Regents for the [[University of California, Santa Cruz|planned UC campus on the Central Coast]].<ref name="Stadtman_Pages412413">{{cite book|last1=Stadtman|first1=Verne A.|title=The University of California, 1868–1968|url=https://archive.org/details/universityofcali00stad|url-access=registration|date=1970|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/universityofcali00stad/page/412 412–413]}}</ref> In contrast, because the state colleges lacked autonomy, they were vulnerable to [[pork barrel]] politics in the state legislature.  As early as 1932, the Suzzallo Report had noted that "the establishing of State teachers colleges has been partly the product of geographic-political considerations rather than of thoughtful determination of needs".<ref name="SuzzalloReport_Page_55">{{cite book |last1=The Commission of Seven |title=State Higher Education in California: Report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching |date=1932 |publisher=California State Printing Office |location=Sacramento |page=55 |url=https://oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb9r29p2g2;NAAN=13030&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=div00021&toc.depth=1&toc.id=div00019&brand=oac4 |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> In 1959 alone, state legislators introduced separate bills to individually create nineteen state colleges.  Two years earlier, one bill that had actually passed had resulted in the creation of [[California State University, Stanislaus|a new state college]] in [[Turlock, California|Turlock]], a town better known for its [[Turkey (bird)|turkeys]] than its aspirations towards higher education, and which made no sense except that the chair of the Senate Committee on Education happened to be from Turlock.<ref name="ClarkKerr2">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA174}}</ref>

In April 1960, the [[California Master Plan for Higher Education]] and the resulting Donahoe Higher Education Act finally granted autonomy to the state colleges.  The Donahoe Act merged all the state colleges into the State College System of California, severed them from the Department of Education (and also the State Board of Education and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction), and authorized the appointment of a systemwide board of trustees and a systemwide chancellor.  The board was initially known as the "Trustees of the State College System of California"; the word "board" was not part of the official name.  In March 1961, the state legislature renamed the system to the California State Colleges (CSC) and the board became the "Trustees of the California State Colleges."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fJ1MAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA540 Cal. Stats., 1961 reg. sess., ch. 12, pp. 540–571].</ref>

As enacted, the Donahoe Act provides that UC "shall be the primary state-supported academic agency for [[research]]" and "has the sole authority in public higher education to award the doctoral degree in all fields of learning".<ref name="section66010.4">[https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=EDC&sectionNum=66010.4. California Education Code Section 66010.4].</ref>  In contrast, CSU may only award the doctoral degree as part of a joint program with UC or "independent institutions of higher education" and is authorized to conduct research "in support of" its mission, which is to provide "undergraduate and graduate instruction through the master's degree."<ref name="section66010.4" />  This language reflects the intent of UC President Kerr and his allies to bring order to "a state of anarchy"—in particular, the state colleges' repeated attempts (whenever they thought UC was not looking) to quietly blossom into full-fledged [[Research university|research universities]], as was occurring elsewhere with other state colleges like [[Michigan State University|Michigan State]].<ref name="ClarkKerr2" />

[[File:CSU Fullerton.jpg|thumb|[[California State University, Fullerton]] was established in 1957.]]

Kerr explained in his memoirs: "The state did not need a higher education system where every component was intent on being another [[Harvard University|Harvard]] or [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] or [[Stanford University|Stanford]]."<ref name="ClarkKerr3">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=178|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA178}}</ref>  As he saw it, the problem with such "[[mission creep|academic drift]]" was that state resources would be spread too thin across too many universities, all would be too busy chasing the "holy grail of elite research status" (in that state college faculty members would inevitably demand reduced teaching loads to make time for research) for any of them to fulfill the state colleges' traditional role of training teachers, and then "some new colleges would have to be founded" to take up that role.<ref name="ClarkKerr3" /> At the time, California already had too many research universities; it had only 9 percent of the American population but 15 percent of the research universities (12 out of 80).<ref name="ClarkKerr4">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=184|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA184}}</ref>  The language about joint programs and authorizing the state colleges to conduct some research was offered by Kerr at the last minute on December 18, 1959, as a "sweetener" to secure the consent of a then-wavering Dumke, the state colleges' representative on the Master Plan survey team.<ref name="ClarkKerr5">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA181}}</ref>

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[[File:CSU San Bernardino 1970.png|thumb|[[California State University, San Bernardino]] was founded in 1965.]]

Dumke reluctantly agreed to Kerr's terms only because he knew the alternative was worse.  If the state colleges could not reach a deal with UC, the California legislature was likely to be caught up in the "superboard" fad then sweeping through state legislatures across the United States.<ref name="Douglass_Page_295">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=295}}</ref>  A "superboard" was a state board of higher education with plenary authority over all public higher education in the state—the number of states with superboards went from 16 in 1939 to 33 by 1969.<ref name="Douglass_Page_314">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=314}}</ref>  Dumke was determined to prevent UC and the state legislature from reducing the state colleges to mere UC "satellites", the dark fate they had narrowly escaped in 1935.<ref name="Douglass_Page_296" /> At the outset of negotiations, Wahlquist had already shot down Kerr's suggestion of the "Santa Barbara route", because the state colleges were well aware that [[History of the University of California, Santa Barbara|Santa Barbara had languished]] under the Board of Regents' mismanagement for 15 years.<ref name="ClarkKerr1" />  Kerr never attempted to reformulate his proposal as a threat, but the specter of his "unstated threat" haunted the state colleges for the remainder of the negotiations.<ref name="Douglass_Page_292">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=292}}</ref>  At least under Kerr's terms the state colleges would finally have their own systemwide board, and to Dumke, that was the most important thing.<ref name="Douglass_Page_296" />  To ensure this compromise at the core of the Master Plan would stay intact through the legislative process, it was agreed that the entire package could be enacted only if the state legislature, the State Board of Education, and the UC Board of Regents all agreed with its two main components: (1) the joint doctorate and (2) the new board for the state colleges.<ref name="Douglass_Page_296">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=John Aubrey |title=The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to the 1960 Master Plan |date=2000 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford |isbn=978-0-8047-3189-8 |page=296}}</ref>

Most state college presidents and approximately 95 percent of state college faculty members (at the nine campuses where polls were held) strongly disagreed with the Master Plan's express endorsement of UC's primary role with respect to research and the doctorate, but they were still subordinate to the State Board of Education.<ref name="ClarkKerr6">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA182}}</ref>  In January 1960, Louis Heilbron was elected as the new chair of the State Board of Education.<ref name="ClarkKerr7">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA181}}</ref>  A [[UC Berkeley School of Law|Berkeley]]-trained attorney, Heilbron had already revealed his loyalty to his [[alma mater]] by joking that UC's ownership of the doctorate ought to be protected from "[[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|unreasonable search and seizure]]."<ref name="ClarkKerr7" /> He worked with Kerr to get the Master Plan's recommendations enacted in the form of the Donahoe Act, which was signed into state law on April 27, 1960.<ref name="ClarkKerr6" />

Heilbron went on to serve as the first chairman of the Trustees of the California State Colleges (1960–1963), where he had to "rein in some of the more powerful campus presidents," improve the smaller and weaker campuses, and get all campuses accustomed to being managed for the first time as a system.<ref name="Nelson">{{cite news |last1=Nelson |first1=Valerie J. |title=Louis H. Heilbron, 99; headed first Cal State trustees board |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-jan-01-me-heilbron1-story.html |access-date=October 19, 2020 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=January 1, 2007}}</ref>  Heilbron set the "central theme" of his chairmanship by saying that "we must cultivate our own garden" (an allusion to ''[[Candide]]'') and stop trying to covet someone else's.<ref name="ClarkKerr8">{{cite book|last1=Kerr|first1=Clark|title=The Gold and the Blue: A Personal Memoir of the University of California, 1949–1967, Volume 1|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-22367-7|page=185|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMEZ_47vXkAC&pg=PA185}}</ref>  Under Heilbron, the board also attempted to improve the quality of state college campus architecture, "in the hope that campuses no longer would resemble [[Prisons in California|state prisons]]."<ref name="Nelson" />  (For example, at the height of the Great Depression, the state government had considered converting Cal Poly San Luis Obispo into a state prison.<ref name="Gerth9">{{cite book|last1=Gerth|first1=Donald R.|title=The People's University: A History of the California State University|date=2010|publisher=Berkeley Public Policy Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-87772-435-3|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKH8c1LMlZ4C&q=converting%20prison}}</ref>)

Although the state colleges had reported to Sacramento since 1921, the board resolved on August 4, 1961 that the headquarters of the California State Colleges would be set up in the Los Angeles area, and in December, the newly-formed chancellor's office was moved from Sacramento to a rented office on [[Imperial Highway]] in [[Inglewood, California|Inglewood]].<ref name="Gerth_Page_126">{{cite book|last1=Gerth|first1=Donald R.|title=The People's University: A History of the California State University|date=2010|publisher=Berkeley Public Policy Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-87772-435-3|page=126|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKH8c1LMlZ4C&q=imperial%20headquarters}}</ref> This location gained the unfortunate nickname of the "imperial headquarters".<ref name="Gerth_Page_126" /> In 1965, the chancellor's office was moved to a larger office space, again rented, on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] in Los Angeles.<ref name="Gerth_Page_161">{{cite book|last1=Gerth|first1=Donald R.|title=The People's University: A History of the California State University|date=2010|publisher=Berkeley Public Policy Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-87772-435-3|page=161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKH8c1LMlZ4C&q=wilshire+boulevard}}</ref>

[[Buell G. Gallagher]] was selected by the board as the first chancellor of the California State Colleges (1961–1962), but resigned after only nine unhappy months to return to his previous job as president of the [[City College of New York]].<ref name="Gerth_Page_120">{{cite book|last1=Gerth|first1=Donald R.|title=The People's University: A History of the California State University|date=2010|publisher=Berkeley Public Policy Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-87772-435-3|pages=120–129|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKH8c1LMlZ4C&q=gallagher%20ccny}}</ref> Dumke succeeded him as the second chancellor of the California State Colleges (1962–1982).  As chancellor, Dumke faithfully adhered to the system's role as prescribed by the Master Plan,<ref name="ClarkKerr6" /> despite continuing resistance and resentment from state college dissidents who thought he had been "out-negotiated" and bitterly criticized the Master Plan as a "thieves' bargain".<ref name="ClarkKerr4" /> Disappointment with the Master Plan was widespread but was especially acute at Dumke's former campus, San Francisco State.<ref name="Gerth_Page_166">{{cite book|last1=Gerth|first1=Donald R.|title=The People's University: A History of the California State University|date=2010|publisher=Berkeley Public Policy Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-87772-435-3|page=166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKH8c1LMlZ4C&q=irritation}}</ref> Dumke retorted that his critics' ambitions to turn the state colleges into "baby Berkeleys" were "unrealistic".<ref name="ClarkKerr5" />  Looking back, Kerr thought the state colleges had failed to appreciate the vast breadth of opportunities reserved to them by the Master Plan, as distinguished from UC's relatively narrow focus on basic research and the doctorate.<ref name="ClarkKerr4" />  In any event, "Heilbron and Dumke got the new state college system off to an excellent start."<ref name="ClarkKerr8" />