Editing Bushido (section)

== Historical development ==
The values that became bushido evolved significantly over the centuries to the present.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>{{r|riben-lun|p=14-15.}}<ref name="britannica-groups">{{cite web|title=Samurai groups and farming villages|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017205525/https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Samurai-groups-and-farming-villages|archive-date=October 17, 2020|website=Britannica.com}}</ref><ref name="bushido-martial-arts"/> These first appeared as unwritten customs in the 12th century with [[shogun]] [[Minamoto Yoritomo]].<ref name="yoritomo">{{cite journal|author1=Shin'ichi, Saeki|date=2008|title=Figures du samouraï dans l'histoire japonaise: Depuis Le Dit des Heiké jusqu'au Bushidô|url=https://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_ARTICLE=ANNA_634_0877|volume=4|pages=877–894|journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales}}</ref> The written term ''bushido'' first appears in the [[Koyo Gunkan]] of roughly circa 1616, an account of the military exploits of the [[Takeda clan]].<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> Bushido evolved from being totally devoted to valor in battle into refined types that were more related to moral integrity.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/><ref name="britannica-groups"/> The samurai had different types of bushido in each era in [[Japanese history|history]], reflecting changing requirements on the battlefield and in society.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/><ref name="britannica-groups"/> The era name should be used to describe the type of bushido.

=== Heian period ===
The first predecessor to bushido was the class morality system of the [[Heian period]].<ref name=":5" />

=== {{anchor|Heian-Kamakura (794-1333)}}Kamakura period ===
[[File:Koyo-Gunkan-Book-Cover-by-Kosaka-Masanobu-1616.png|thumb|upright|left|[[Koyo Gunkan]] by [[Kosaka Masanobu]] (1616)]]
The first proper Japanese central government was established around the year 700. Japan was ruled by the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] (Tennō) with bureaucratic support of the aristocracy. They gradually lost control of their armed servants, the samurai. By the mid-12th century, the samurai class had seized control. The samurai (bushi) ruled Japan with the [[shogun]] (将軍) as the overlord until the mid 19th century. The shogun was originally the Emperor's military deputy. After the [[Genpei War]] (1180–1185), [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] usurped power from the civil aristocracy by establishing a military government called the [[bakufu]] situated in [[Kamakura]] since 1192.<ref name="nussbaum459"/> The Emperor and his court became [[figurehead]]s.<ref name="nussbaum459">[[Louis-Frédéric|Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric]]. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA459 "''Kamakura-jidai''"] in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 459.</ref><ref>"...not only was the Heian system of '''imperial-aristocratic rule''' still vigorous during the twelfth century, but also it remained the essential framework within which the bakufu, during its lifetime, was obliged to operate. In this sense, the Heian pattern of government survived into the fourteenth century – to be destroyed with the '''Kama-kura bakufu''' rather than by it." Warrior Rule in Japan, page 1. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[File:Minamoto_no_Yoritomo.jpg|thumb|upright|Shogun [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] (1147–1199)]]
The appearance of bushido is linked to that of feudal Japan and the first [[shogun]] at the time of [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] (1147–1199) in the 12th century. The own moral dimension bushido gradually appears in the warrior culture and landmark in stories and military treaties only from the 14th and 15th century.<ref name="yoritomo" /> Thus is noted a permanence of the modern representation of its antiquity in Japanese culture and its diffusion.

In the 10th and 11th century there was the ''Way of the Man-At-Arms'' (Tsuwamon no michi), and the ''Way of the Bow and Arrows'' (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi).<ref>{{harvnb|Shin'ichi|Souyri|2017|pp=63–64}}</ref> At the time of the [[Genpei War|Genpei War (1180–1185)]], it was called ''"Way of the Bow and the Horse"'' (弓馬の道, kyūba no michi)<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> because of the major importance of this style of combat for the warriors of the time, and because it was considered a traditional method, that of the oldest samurai heroes, such as [[Prince Shōtoku]], [[Minamoto no Yorimitsu]] and [[Minamoto no Yoshiie]] (Hachimantarō). According to [[Louis Frédéric]], the kyūba no michi appeared around the 10th century as a set of rules and unwritten customs that samurai were expected to comply.<ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3186148 ''Encyclopaedia of Asian civilizations'']</ref> There was also ''"Yumiya toru mi no narai"'' (customs for those who draw the bow).<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> This shows there was an emerging sense of ideal warrior behavior that evolved from daily training and warfare experience.<ref name="britannica-groups" />

{{Blockquote|text=Towards the 10th and 11th centuries we began to use expressions such as the way of the man-at-arms (Tsuwamon no michi), the way of the bow and arrows (Kyûsen / kyûya no Michi), the way of the bow and the horse (Kyûba no Michi). These expressions refer to practices which are the ancestors of the way of the warrior (bushidô) but they did not then imply any relation whatsoever to a morality. These were only practices focused on training for real combat and which therefore had to do with the samurai ways of life in the broad sense.<ref>{{harvnb|Shin'ichi|Souyri|2017}}</ref> }}

{{Blockquote|text=The world of warriors which developed […] in the medieval period (12th – 16th century) was […] placed under the domination of the Buddhist religion […]. Buddhism makes the prohibition of killing living beings one of its main principles. […] Faced with death, some samurai thought they had inherited bad karma […] others knew they were doing evil. The Buddhist notion of impermanence (Mujo) tended to express a certain meaning to the fragility of existence, […]. Beliefs in the pure land of Buddha Amida […] allowed some warriors to hope for an Amidist paradise […]. Zen Buddhism with its doctrine of the oneness between life and death was also appreciated by many samurai […]. The world of medieval warriors remained a universe still largely dominated by the supernatural, and the belief in particular, in the tormented souls of warriors fallen in combat (who) returned almost obsessively in the dreams of the living. This idea also ensured the success of the Noh theater.<ref>{{harvnb|Shin'ichi|Souyri|2017|pp=20–21}}</ref> }}

''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'' depicts an idealized story of the [[Genpei War]] (1180–1185) with a struggle between two powerful samurai clans, the [[Minamoto clan|Minamoto]] and the [[Taira clan|Taira]]. Clearly depicted throughout the epic is the ideal of the cultivated warrior.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Flashing Steel: Mastering Eishin-Ryu Swordsmanship, 2nd edition|last1=Shimabukuro|first1=Masayuki|last2=Pellman|first2=Leonard|publisher=Blue Snake Books|year=2007|isbn=9781583941973|location=Berkeley, CA|page=2}}</ref> During the early modern era, these ideals were vigorously pursued in the upper echelons of warrior society and recommended as the proper form of the Japanese man of arms.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The influence of Shinto, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on bushido's early development instilled among those who live by the code a religious respect for it.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/japanese_religions | title=Japanese Religions }}</ref>

Many early literary works of Japan talk of warriors, but the term ''bushidō'' does not appear in text until the Edo period.<ref>"The Zen of Japanese Nationalism," by Robert H. Sharf, in ''Curators of the Buddha'', edited by Donald Lopez, p. 111</ref> The code which would become bushido was conceptualized during the late-[[Kamakura period]] (1185–1333) in Japan.<ref name="kawakami">{{cite journal |last1=Kawakami |first1=Tasuke |title=Bushidō in its Formative Period |journal=The Annals of the Hitotsubashi Academy |date=1952 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=65–83 |jstor=43751264 }}</ref> Since the days of the [[Kamakura shogunate]], the "way of the warrior" has been an integral part of Japanese culture.<ref name="heilbrunn">Department of Asian Art. "Kamakura and Nanbokucho Periods (1185–1392)." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.</ref><ref name="EnciclopediaTreccani" /> Scholars generally regard pre-modern Japan as a "warrior nation" since the medieval period.<ref name="warrior-nation">{{cite news |title=Imperial Japan saw itself as a 'warrior nation' – and the idea lingers today |date=22 December 2017|publisher=The Conversation |access-date=25 August 2019 |url=http://theconversation.com/imperial-japan-saw-itself-as-a-warrior-nation-and-the-idea-lingers-today-87289 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428112755/http://theconversation.com/imperial-japan-saw-itself-as-a-warrior-nation-and-the-idea-lingers-today-87289 |archive-date=April 28, 2019}}</ref> The samurai were role models for society since medieval times. In accordance with [[Confucianism]], one of their duties was to serve as a role model for society. They balanced their martial arts skills with peaceful accomplishments such as literature, poetry and the [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Virginia Schomp | title =Japan in the Days of the Samurai (Cultures of the Past) | publisher =Benchmark Books| year =1998| page = 59 | isbn =0761403043 }}</ref> Such as the medieval Japanese proverb ''[[Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi]]'' ({{langx|ja|花は桜木人は武士}}, literally "the [best] blossom is the cherry blossom; the [best] man is the warrior").<ref>{{cite book | editor=Daniel Crump Buchanan| title =Japanese Proverbs and Sayings| url=https://archive.org/details/japaneseproverbs00buch| url-access=registration| publisher =University of Oklahoma Press| year =1965| page =[https://archive.org/details/japaneseproverbs00buch/page/119 119]| isbn =0806110821}}</ref> In 1843 Nakamura said: {{blockquote|Our nation is a nation of arms. The land to the west [China] is a nation of letters. Nations of letters value the pen. Nations of arms value the sword. That's the way it has been from the beginning... Our country and theirs are separated from one another by hundreds of miles, our customs are completely different, the temperaments of our people are dissimilar – so how could we possibly share the same Way? (Nakamura 1843 cited in Watanabe 2012: 285).<ref>Nakamura, M. Shoburon (1843), In Vol. 6 of ''Bushido Zensho'', ed., Inoue Tetsujiro, Saeki Ariyoshi, Ueki Naoichiro, and Kokusho Kankokai, 1998.</ref><ref>Watanabe, H. A History of Japanese Political Thought, 1600–1901. Translated by David Noble. LTCB International Library Trust, International House of Japan, 2012.</ref>}}

=== {{anchor|Muromachi-Azuchi (1336-1603)}}Muromachi-Azuchi (1336–1603) ===
During the [[Muromachi period]] (1336–1573) the way of the warrior began to ''refine'' by inserting in their daily activities, alongside martial training, [[Japanese Zen|Zen]] meditation, [[Japanese painting|painting]] (monochrome style), [[ikebana]], the [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]], [[Japanese poetry|poetry]] such as the [[death poem]] (written by samurai before suicidal missions or battles)<ref>Mayumi Ito, ''Japanese Tokko Soldiers and Their Jisei''</ref> and [[Japanese literature|literature]].<ref name="EnciclopediaTreccani" />

[[Carl Steenstrup]] noted that 13th- and 14th-century writings (''[[gunki monogatari]]'') "portrayed the ''bushi'' in their natural element, war, eulogizing such virtues as reckless bravery, fierce family pride, and selfless, at times senseless devotion of master and man".<ref name="carl-biwahoshi"<ref/>

{{blockquote|Every farmer was basically also a warrior until [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi|Hideyoshi]] confiscated weapons through a nation-wide "sword-hunt" in 1588. Every [[ashigaru]] had his first lessons on the mentality of war from the [[biwa hōshi]]. On the other hand, the Heike recitations also propagated civic virtues: loyalty, steadfastness in adversity, and pride of family honor.|[[Carl Steenstrup]]<ref name="carl-biwahoshi"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steenstrup |first1=Carl |title=Notes on the Gunki or Military Tales: Contributions to the Study of the Impact of War on Folk Literature in Premodern Japan |journal=Comparative Civilizations Review |date=1 April 1980 |volume=4 |issue=4 |id={{ProQuest|1311892267}} |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol4/iss4/2/ }}</ref>}} 
[[File:Katō_Kiyomasa.jpg|thumb|Daimyo [[Katō Kiyomasa]]]]
The sayings of [[Sengoku period|Sengoku-period]] retainers and warlords such as [[Katō Kiyomasa]] (1562–1611) and [[Nabeshima Naoshige]] were generally recorded or passed down to posterity around the turn of the 16th century when Japan had entered a period of relative peace. In a handbook addressed to "all ''samurai'', regardless of rank", Katō states:

{{blockquote|If a man does not investigate into the matter of ''bushidō'' daily, it will be difficult for him to die a brave and manly death. Thus, it is essential to engrave this business of the warrior into one's mind well.|Katō Kiyomasa"<ref name="Wilson"/>}}

Katō was a ferocious warrior who banned even recitation of poetry, stating:

{{blockquote|One should put forth great effort in matters of learning. One should read books concerning military matters, and direct his attention exclusively to the virtues of loyalty and filial piety....Having been born into the house of a warrior, one's intentions should be to grasp [[Daishō|the long and the short swords]] and to die."|Katō Kiyomasa<ref name="Wilson">William Scott Wilson, Ideals of the Samurai: Writings of Japanese Warriors ([[Kodansha]], 1982) {{ISBN|0-89750-081-4}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=does the word ''bushidō'' appear in the original Japanese text?|date=February 2018}}}}[[Nabeshima Naoshige]] (1538–1618) says similarly, that it is shameful for any man to die without having risked his life in battle, regardless of rank, and that "''bushidō'' is in being crazy to die. Fifty or more could not kill one such a man. However, Naoshige also suggests that "everyone should personally know exertion as it is known in the lower classes".<ref name="Wilson" />

By the mid-16th century, several of Japan's most powerful warlords began to vie for supremacy over territories amidst the Kyoto government's waning power. With Kyoto's capture by the warlord [[Oda Nobunaga]] in 1573, the [[Muromachi period]] concluded.<ref name="kawakami"/>

In 1551 CE, one of the [[List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868|first western people to visit Japan]] was the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[missionary]] [[Francis Xavier]]. The description of Francis shows that [[honor]], [[weaponry]] and [[warfare]] were valued of utmost importance in Japanese culture.<ref name="xavier">{{cite journal | last =Pacheco  | first =Diego  | title =Xavier and Tanegashima  | journal = [[Monumenta Nipponica]] | volume =29  | date =Winter 1974  | issue =4  | pages =477–480  | jstor =  2383897| doi =10.2307/2383897 }}</ref> {{blockquote|The Japanese are very ambitious of honors and distinctions, and think themselves superior to all nations in military glory and valor. They prize and honor all that has to do with war, and all such things, and there is nothing of which they are so proud as of weapons adorned with gold and silver. They always wear swords and daggers both in and out of the house, and when they go to sleep they hang them at the bed's head. In short, they value arms more than any people I have ever seen. They are excellent archers, and usually fight on foot, though there is no lack of horses in the country. They are very polite to each other, but not to foreigners, whom they utterly despise. They spend their means on arms, bodily adornment, and on a number of attendants, and do not in the least care to save money. They are, in short, a very warlike people, and engaged in continual wars among themselves; the most powerful in arms bearing the most extensive sway. They have all one sovereign, although for one hundred and fifty years past the princes have ceased to obey him, and this is the cause of their perpetual feuds.<ref>{{cite letter | first = Francis  | last = Xavier | recipient = Society of Jesus at Goa | subject = Letter from Japan, to the Society of Jesus at Goa, 1552 | language = en | date = 1552 | type = letter | url = https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1552xavier4.asp | access-date = 17 June 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Coleridge |first= Henry James |year=1872 |orig-year= 1876|title= The life and letters of St. Francis Xavier |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=gbJSAAAAcAAJ&q=bibliogroup:%22The+Life+and+Letters+of+St.+Francis+Xavier%22|volume=1 |edition=2nd|location= London|publisher= Burns and Oates |publication-date=1872 |pages= 331–350 |access-date= 17 June 2019}} [https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofstf01coleuoft Alt URL]</ref>}}

The practice of decapitating and collecting enemy heads is an example of honor in samurai culture.<ref name="Gaskin, Carol 2004"/><ref name="headhunters">{{cite web |website=YouTube |publisher=Smithsonian Channel |title=A Samurai's Collection of Human Heads |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfDOG2AJvTU |date=March 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118233925/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZfDOG2AJvTU |archive-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref> The severed heads were shown to a general as evidence that they killed wanted opponents and to collect rewards.<ref name="headhunters"/> More heads meant higher prestige, honor and rewards.<ref name="headhunters"/> A beautification ritual of the severed heads called ''[[Ohaguro]]'' was performed.<ref name="Turnbull, Stephen 2004. pg. 231">Turnbull, Stephen. Samurai The Story of Japan's Great Warriors. London. Prc Publishing Ltd, 2004. Print. pg. 231.</ref><ref name="Gaskin, Carol 2004"/> Prestigious heads were arranged on a table and presented in front of the warriors.<ref name="Gaskin, Carol 2004"/><ref name="headhunters"/> All heads were identified and marked to prevent mistakes.<ref name="headhunters"/> The guards were left and right of the general and cited spells to transfix demonic spirits of the enemy.<ref name="headhunters"/> Then a samurai said his own name, lifted a box to show and describe the severed head.<ref name="headhunters"/> The general inspected the trophy heads while holding a fan so that the dead could not recognize his face.<ref name="headhunters"/> If the claimed head was correct then the samurai received a payment otherwise he was dismissed.<ref name="headhunters"/><ref name="Gaskin, Carol 2004"/>

Despite the war-torn culmination of this era and the birth of the Edo period, Samurai codes of conduct continued to extend beyond the realms of warfare. Forms of bushido-related [[Zen Buddhism]] and [[Confucianism]] also emerged during this period.<ref name="Tasuke_78">Tasuke, p. 78</ref> A Samurai adhering to bushido-like codes was expected to live a just and ethical social life; honoring the practices of the gentry in the absence of military campaigns.<ref name="Tasuke_78" />

=== Edo (1603–1868) ===
[[File:Miyamoto Musashi killing a giant nue.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Miyamoto Musashi]] killing a giant creature, from [[The Book of Five Rings]]]]
[[File:Kashoki-Amusing-Notes-by-Saito-Chikamori-Bushido-1642.png|thumb|Kashoki (Amusing Notes) by Saito Chikamori (1642)]]
[[File:Nabeshima-Secretary-Hagakure-The-Analects-Bushido-Book.png|thumb|upright|Nabeshima Secretary, [[Hagakure]] The Anelects]]
[[File:Kokon-Bushido-Ezukushi-(Bushido-Through-The-Ages-Book).png|thumb|upright|Book cover of ''Kokon Bushido Ezukushi'' (''Bushido Through the Ages'') by artist [[Hishikawa Moronobu]] (1685)]] 
Japan enjoyed two and a half centuries of relative peace during the [[Edo period]] (1600 to the mid-19th century). Japan didn't have domestic or international conflict. These peaceful times in Tokugawa society enabled bushido to be refined from a focus on ''valor in battle'' to more ''moral integrity''.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] (1603–1867) codified aspects of the Samurai warrior values and formalized them into parts of the Japanese feudal law.<ref name="tokugawa-law">{{Cite web |url=http://www.samuraimaster.com/tokugawa-shogunate/ |title=Tokugawa shogunate |access-date=2017-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612174244/https://www.samuraimaster.com/tokugawa-shogunate/ |archive-date=2018-06-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition to the "house codes" issued in the context of the fiefdoms (han) and texts that described the right behavior of a warrior (such as the Hagakure), the first [[Buke shohatto]] (Laws for the Military Houses, 武家諸法度) was issued by the government in 1615, which prescribed to the lords of the fiefdoms ([[daimyo]]) and the samurai warrior aristocracy responsibilities and activities, the rules of conduct, simple and decent clothing, the correct supply in case of official visits, etc.<ref name="EnciclopediaTreccani">{{cite web |website=Treccani |title=Bushido |access-date=January 21, 2018 |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bushido_(Dizionario-di-Storia)-(Enciclopedia-Italiana)/ |archive-date=October 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030001558/https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/bushido_%28Dizionario-di-Storia%29-%28Enciclopedia-Italiana%29/}}</ref> The edicts were reissued in 1629, and in 1635, by the third shogun [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]]. The new edicts made clear the shogunate's authority and its desire to assert control.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Hall|editor-first=John Whitney|title=The Cambridge history of Japan Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan|date=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=James L. McClain|isbn=0-521-22352-0|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=17483588}}</ref> The swordsmanship skills of the samurai developed into character-building martial arts.<ref name="samurai-spirit"/>

During this period, the ''samurai'' class played a central role in the policing and administration of the country.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ikegami |first1=Eiko |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54774925 |title=Bonds of civility : aesthetic networks and the political origins of Japanese culture |last2=池上 |first2=英子. |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-80942-8 |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=157 |oclc=54774925}}</ref> The [[bushidō literature|''bushidō'' literature]] of this time contains much thought relevant to a warrior class seeking more general application of martial principles and experience in peacetime, as well as reflection on the land's long history of war.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}} The literature of this time includes:

* ''Shoke no Hyōjō'' by Ogasawara Sakuun (1621)<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>
* ''Budo Shōshinshu'' (武道初心集) by Taira Shigesuke, [[Daidōji Yūzan]] (1639–1730)<ref name="shoshinshu"/>
*''[[Hagakure]]'' as related by [[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]] to [[Tsuramoto Tashiro]].
* [[Bugei Juhappan]] (武芸十八般)
* [[A Book of Five Rings]] by [[Miyamoto Musashi]]

The first mention of the term ''bushido'' is in the scriptures [[Koyo Gunkan]] (甲陽軍鑑) from Takeda-ryū (martial arts school), written around 1616 by samurai [[Kōsaka Masanobu]] (1527–1578).<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> It consists of 20 scrolls that mention bushido over 30 times.<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> It contains the history of the [[Takeda family]] and their military tactics.<ref name="Turnbull">{{Cite book|last=Turnbull|first=Stephen|title=Battles of the Samurai|publisher=Arms and Armour Press|year=1987|isbn=0853688265|page=41}}</ref> The Koyo Gunkan describes valor and exploits in battle.<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> For example, it is a waste of talent when a bushido practitioner takes on administrative roles in government or financial affairs (e.g. dealings in rice, money, timber, or forest land). It emphasizes that bushido lies only in "becoming as a spear" on the battlefield.<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> The scrolls were widely disseminated as a martial arts instruction manual by the samurai class and helped to popularize the term.<ref name="nippon-bushido" />

In [[Koyo Gunkan]] (1616), bushido is a survival technique for individual fighters, and it aims to make the development of the self and the clan troupe advantageous by raising the samurai name. He also affirms that he seeks a lord who praises himself for wandering, as reflected in Tōdō Takatora (1556–1630)'s deceased memoir that "A samurai cannot be called a samurai until he has changed his lords seven times." Also, as symbolized by [[Asakura Norikage]] (1477–1555), "The warrior may be called a beast or a dog; the main thing is winning." As symbolized by Asakura Norikage, it is essential to win the battle even with the slander of cowardice. The feature is that it also contains the cold-hearted philosophy. These are mainly related to the way of life as a samurai, and they are the teachings of each family, and they are also equivalent to the treatment of vassals.

Dr. Hiroko Willcock (senior lecturer at [[Griffith University]], Australia) explained ''Koyo Gunkan is the earliest comprehensive extant work that provides a notion of bushido as a samurai ethos and the value system of the samurai tradition.''<ref name="hiroko">{{cite book |last=Willcock |first=Hiroko |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rfYAAAAMAAJ&q=koyo+gunkan+bushido |title=The Japanese Political Thought of Uchimura Kanzō (1861–1930): Synthesizing Bushidō, Christianity, Nationalism, and Liberalism |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0773451513 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |quote=Koyo gunkan is the earliest comprehensive extant work that provides a notion of Bushido as a samurai ethos and the value system of the samurai tradition.}}</ref> However, it does not have a set of principles regarded as "true" or "false", but rather varying perceptions widely regarded as formidable throughout different centuries. Emphasized by Thomas Cleary, {{blockquote|Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shinto were each represented by a variety of schools, and elements of all three were commonly combined in Japanese culture and customs. As the embodiment of Samurai culture, bushido is correspondingly diverse, drawing selectively on elements of all these traditions to articulate the ethos and discipline of the warrior.<ref>Thomas Cleary, ''Samurai Wisdom: Lessons from Japan's Warrior Culture; Five Classic Texts on Bushido''. Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2009. 28</ref>}}

During the [[Genna]] era (1615–1624) of the [[Edo period]] and later, the concept of "the way of the gentleman" (Shidō) was newly established by the [[philosopher]] and [[strategist]] [[Yamaga Sokō]] (1622–1685) and others who tried to explain this value in the [[morality]] of the [[Confucian]] [[Cheng–Zhu school]]. For the first time, Confucian ethics (such as Honor and Humanity", "filial piety") became the norm required by samurai.<ref>{{cite book| author=多田顕  |editor=永安幸正 |title=武士道の倫理 山鹿素行の場合 |date=2006 |isbn=978-4892055126 |publisher=麗澤大学出版会 |trans-title="Ethics of Samurai Road, In the Case of Motoyuki Yamaka |language=ja}}</ref> Yamaga Sokō was widely viewed as the "Sage of Bushidō" in early twentieth-century Japan.{{r|riben-lun|p=8-9, 12, 31-32, 86.}}

Martial arts scholar Ogasawara Sakuun compiled 20 scrolls called Shoke no Hyōjō about the military arts in 1621.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> Therein bushido is described as iji (willpower).<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> The scrolls describe the essence of bushido as the strength to not yield to rewards or power, but adhere to personal convictions that dominate one's inner principles.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

In 1642, the {{nihongo|''Kashoki''|可笑記|"Amusing Notes"}} was written by samurai ''Saitō Chikamori'' (斎藤親盛, 1603–1674) (ex-vassal of the [[Mogami clan]] from [[Yamagata Domain]]) and published.<ref name="nippon-bushido" /><ref name="showa-women-uni">Showa Women's University Professor Akio Fukasawa (昭和女子大教授・深沢秋男)</ref> Chikamori's pen name was Nyoraishi (如儡子). The kashoki are 5 scrolls with wide-ranging content, including samurai knowledge with moral precepts,<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> the knowledge of ordinary people, the teachings of Confucian Buddhism, and narrative ones. It has moral precepts which explain theoretical aspects of bushido.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> The 5th scroll has an important definition that was made by a samurai:<ref name="nippon-bushido" /> Thus the first known description of morality in bushido and the ''bushido spirit'' was the Kashoki.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

{{blockquote|The essence of Bushidō is: do not lie, do not be insincere, do not be obsequious, do not be superficial, do not be greedy, do not be rude, do not be boastful, do not be arrogant, do not slander, do not be unfaithful, be on good terms with comrades, do not be overly concerned with events, show concern for one another, be compassionate, with a strong sense of duty. Being a good samurai takes more than merely a willingness to lay down one's life.|5th scroll of the Kashoki by Saitō Chikamori (1642)<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>}}

The kashoki was important with promulgating the ''bushido spirit'' among the [[commoner|common population]].<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> Thus it was written for [[commoners]], not warriors.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> Its accessibility made it very popular, because it was written in [[kana]] (hiragana and katakana) rather than [[kanji]] which can be read by people with [[elementary school]] reading skills.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> There were many editions which had major influence on the behavior of commoners such as adults, adolescents, women and generations.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

Master swordsman [[Miyamoto Musashi]]'s life exemplifies bushido.<ref name="musashi-five-rings"/> Musashi (1584–1645) wrote [[The Book of Five Rings]] (Gorin no Sho) around 1643.<ref name="musashi-five-rings"/> It consists of five volumes (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind and Void). The Book of Earth describes the general framework of bushidō.<ref name="musashi-five-rings">{{cite web |website=Nippon.com |url=https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g00689/master-swordsman-miyamoto-musashi-the-man-behind-the-book-of-five-rings.html |title=Master Swordsman Miyamoto Musashi: The Man Behind The Book of Five Rings |date= July 25, 2019 |author=Uozumi Takashi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305121209/https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g00689/master-swordsman-miyamoto-musashi-the-man-behind-the-book-of-five-rings.html |archive-date=March 5, 2020}}</ref> For example: apply skills in any situation, always carry two swords, learn how to effectively use the lance, [[naginata]], bow and arrow, and guns. A daimyo should know the strength of his troops and how to properly deploy them. Devote yourself to training to master a way, avoid evil acts and thoughts, broaden perspectives with arts and knowledge about different professions, make objective judgments etc.<ref name="musashi-five-rings"/>

In 1685, the [[ukiyo-e]] book {{nihongo|''Kokon Bushidō ezukushi''|古今武士道絵つくし|"Images of Bushidō Through the Ages"}} by artist [[Hishikawa Moronobu]] (1618–1694) was published.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> It features heroic popular tales of samurai warriors with simple descriptions per artwork.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/> The title includes the word ''bushido'' and it was meant for children which shows that it had spread among the general population.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

The Chinese politician [[Dai Jitao]] (1891–1949) attended [[Nihon University]]'s law program in 1907. He was fluent in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and learned about bushido. Dai criticized the supposedly violent nature of the traditional Japanese ''feudal class'' structure before the [[Meiji (era)|Meiji period]]. Dai said the samurai brutally exploited the class structure to abuse and kill people below them in the social order (and biasedly claimed the opposite for Chinese society as peace-loving). According to Dai, after Confucianism became influential in the 17th century, it brought ideas of benevolence and humanity that pacified the cruel samurai and set Japan upon the course to become a modern and civilized society. Dai also appreciated aspects of the samurai. For example Dai said: Japan continued to benefit from their spirit of self-sacrifice, selfless loyalty, and—after Confucianism was introduced—compassion. Dai blamed the problems of modern Japan (post-Meiji restoration) due to the loss of samurai virtues when the former merchant class gained power and large corporations started to steer government policy.<ref name="lu-yan-2004">Lu Yan (2004). Re-Understanding Japan: Chinese Perspectives 1895–1945. Page= 87-9. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press.</ref> Dai said after the samurai class was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals of compassion, their bushido became essentially a "life of blood and tears", because they selflessly shed blood for their lords and cried tears of compassion for farmers and other lower class people.{{r|riben-lun|p=16.}}

The ''[[Hagakure]]'' contains many sayings attributed to [[Sengoku period|Sengoku-period]] retainer [[Nabeshima Naoshige]] (1537–1619) regarding ''bushidō'' related philosophy early in the 18th century by [[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]] (1659–1719), a former [[retainer (medieval)|retainer]] to Naoshige's grandson, [[Nabeshima Mitsushige]]. The [[Hagakure]] was compiled in the early 18th century, but was kept as a kind of "secret teaching" of the [[Nabeshima clan]] until the end of the Tokugawa ''bakufu'' (1867).<ref name="Samurai">"The Samurai Series: The Book of Five Rings, Hagakure -The Way of the Samurai & Bushido – The Soul of Japan" ELPN Press (November, 2006) {{ISBN|1-934255-01-7}}</ref>  His saying, "''I have found the way of the warrior is death''", was a summation of the focus on honour and reputation over all else that ''bushidō'' codified.<ref>Meirion and Susie Harries, ''Soldiers of the Sun:  The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army'' p 7 {{ISBN|0-394-56935-0}}</ref> This is occasionally misinterpreted that bushido is a code of death. The true meaning is by having a constant consciousness of death, people can achieve a state of freedom that transcends life and death, whereby "''it is possible to perfectly fulfill one's calling as a warrior.''"<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

Tokugawa-era [[rōnin]], scholar and strategist [[Yamaga Sokō]] (1622–1685) wrote extensively on matters relating to ''bushidō'', ''bukyō'' (a "warrior's creed"), and a more general ''shidō'', a "way of gentlemen" intended for application to all stations of society. Sokō attempts to codify a kind of "universal ''bushidō''" with a special emphasis on "pure" [[Confucian]] values, (rejecting the mystical influences of Tao and Buddhism in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy), while at the same time calling for recognition of the singular and divine nature of Japan and Japanese culture. These radical concepts—including ultimate devotion to the Emperor, regardless of rank or clan—put him at odds with the reigning shogunate. He was exiled to the [[Akō Domain|Akō domain]], (the future setting of the [[Forty-seven rōnin|47 Rōnin incident]]), and his works were not widely read until the rise of nationalism in the early 20th century.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}
[[File:Oishi Yoshio Gishi Seppuku No Zu Painting.png|thumb|Painting of [[Ōishi Yoshio]] committing [[seppuku]], 1703]]
The aging Yamamoto Tsunetomo's interpretation of ''bushidō'' is perhaps more illustrative of the philosophy refined by his unique station and experience, at once dutiful and defiant, ultimately incompatible with the laws of an emerging civil society. Of the 47 ''rōnin''—to this day, generally regarded as exemplars of ''bushidō''—Tsunetomo felt they were remiss in hatching such a wily, delayed plot for revenge, and had been over-concerned with the success of their undertaking. Instead, Tsunetomo felt true ''samurai'' should act without hesitation to fulfill their duties, without regard for success or failure.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

This romantic sentiment is of course expressed by warriors throughout history, though it may run counter to the art of war itself. This ambivalence is found in the heart of ''bushidō'', and perhaps all such "[[warrior]] codes". Some combination of traditional ''bushidō''<nowiki/>'s organic contradictions and more "universal" or "progressive" formulations (like those of Yamaga Sokō) would inform Japan's disastrous military ambitions in the 20th century.{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

According to the social psychologist Toshio Yamagishi ([[:ja:山岸俊男]], 1948–2018) "Bushido is the ideal human image formed mainly in the Edo period, in other words a virtue in the groupism world."<ref name="toshio"/> It was the perfect person that fitted the ideal control of the samurai administration in the Edo period.<ref name="toshio">{{cite book |title=「日本人」という、うそ: 武士道精神は日本を復活させるか (ちくま文庫) Paperback Bunko – October 7, 2015 |via=Amazon |date=October 2015 |isbn=978-4480433046 |publication-date=October 7, 2015 |publisher=Chikuma Shobō}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Meiji-Showa (1868-1945)}}Meiji-Showa (1868–1945) ===
[[File:Samurai-in-Armour-by-Kusakabe-Kimbei.png|thumb|Three samurai with different weapons, the one on the left has a [[yumi]], in the center a [[katana]] and on the right a [[yari]]]]
 
Recent scholarship in both Japan and abroad has focused on differences between the samurai caste and the bushido theories that developed in modern Japan. Bushido evolved considerably over time. Bushido in the prewar period emphasized the role of the emperor and placed greater value on the imperial virtues of loyalty and self-sacrifice than many Tokugawa-era interpretations.<ref name="ikegami">Eiko Ikegami. ''The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.</ref>

[[File:Houghton Hearn 92.40.10 - Bushido cover.jpg|thumb|upright|Cover of ''[[Bushido: The Soul of Japan]]'', 1900]]
Prominent scholars{{who|date=March 2021}} consider the bushido prevalent since the [[Meiji (era)|Meiji era]] to be a simplification of the attributes of samurai.<ref>Kanno Kakumyō, Bushidō no gyakushū (Kōdansha, 2004), p. 11.</ref> Samurai originally fought for personal matters and the honor of their family and clan. When Japan was unified, the role of samurai included public administrative responsibilities, such as public order preservation, judicial responsibility, infrastructure maintenance, disaster recovery, farmland development, healthcare administration and industrial promotion.<ref name="nippon-bushido"/>

The samurai class was abolished in the 1870s and the role of those in it grew more bureaucratic, focusing on the formation of a modern nation-state. With the diminishing of social classes, some values were transferred to the whole population, such as loyalty to the emperor.<ref name="EnciclopediaTreccani"/> The author [[Yukio Mishima]] asserted that "invasionism or militarism had nothing to do with bushidō from the outset." According to Mishima, a man of bushido is someone who has a firm sense of self-respect, takes responsibility for his actions and sacrifices himself to embody that responsibility.

[[Dai Jitao]] credited the samurai with sole responsibility for the [[Meiji Restoration]], which enabled Japan's modernization, while the populace merely allowed it to happen.<ref name="riben-lun">Dai Jitao (2011). Riben lun. Beijing, Guangming Ribao Chuban She. Page= 46</ref> Dai argued that Japanese combative tendency and militarism were purely founded in Japan's socio-religious superstitions centered on the notion of divine authority.{{r|riben-lun|p=33.}} It did not exist in Chinese or Indian thought.{{r|riben-lun|p=33.}}

Bushido was used as a propaganda tool by the government and military, who doctored it to suit their needs.<ref>[[Karl Friday]]. ''Bushidō or Bull? A Medieval Historian's Perspective on the Imperial Army and the Japanese Warrior Tradition.'' The History Teacher, Volume 27, Number 3, May 1994, pages 339–349.[http://ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_friday_0301.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215170025/http://ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_friday_0301.htm|date=2010-12-15}}</ref> The original [[Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors]] of 1882 uses the word ''hōkoku'' (報国), signifying the idea of indebtedness to one's nation because of one's birth. Such debt must be repaid through physical or mental exertion. This idea did not exist in earlier bushido.

Chinese writer [[Zhou Zuoren]] regarded the bushido promoted by the military as a corruption of a noble and ancient tradition.<ref name="Kaori"/> He discussed the act of [[seppuku]] and the importance of old samurai practices in his 1935 essay series, "Riben guankui". He named the story of the [[Forty-seven rōnin]] of the Akō Domain, who were sentenced to seppuku after avenging their daimyo, and their legacy in the story [[Chūshingura]] (A Treasury of Loyal Retainers). He discussed the [[Sakai incident]], in which 20 samurai from Tosa Domain committed seppuku in 1868 for attacking French sailors. These examples were compared with the soft punishment given to the soldiers who assassinated Prime Minister [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]] in 1932. Zhou condemned them for not taking responsibility by committing suicide like traditional samurai.<ref name="Kaori">{{cite book|author=Hatakeyama Kaori |date=2013 |title=Chūgoku ni okeru Nihon rikai no issokumen—'Bushidō'wo megutte |publisher=Kyōto Sangyō Daigaku ronshū: jinbun kagaku keiretsu, no. 46: 326.}}</ref> In 1936, Zhou wrote about the loss of humanity and empathy of traditional bushido during the deterioration of the Second World War. He pointed to the samurai novel{{specify|date=March 2021}} by [[Jun'ichirō Tanizaki]] as an example where victors of a battle treated enemy corpses with dignity.{{r|lu-yan-2004|p=227.}}

Bushido regained popularity and became intertwined with Japan's nationalist expression in the mid-1800s in response to Britain's invasion of China in the [[First Opium War]]. Xenophobia toward Westerners rose in Japan during the 1850s and 1860s which contributed to the perceived legitimacy of the imperial restoration. Use of "bushido" in text increased during this period and its concept was viewed with more positivity. While it disappeared during the 1870s, it reappeared in the 1880s to express the loss of traditional values during the rapid introduction of Western civilization and a renewed sense of urgency to defend Japanese traditions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Bushido et les conférences de Yamaoka Tesshu|publisher=Tokyo Koyûkan|location=Tokyo|year=1902}}</ref> The [[First Sino-Japanese War|victory of Japan over China in 1895]] restored a feeling of pride in bushido, which was considered the "origin of military success."<ref>{{cite book|title=Bushido shi jûkô|publisher=Tokyo Meguro Shoten|location=Tokyo|year=1927}}</ref>

The researcher Oleg Benesch argued that the concept of modern bushido changed throughout the modern era as a response to foreign stimuli in the 1880s, such as the English concept of the gentleman. [[Nitobe Inazō]]'s bushido interpretations followed a similar trajectory, though he was following earlier trends. This relatively pacifistic bushido was hijacked and adapted by militarists and the government from the early 1900s as nationalism increased around the time of the [[Russo-Japanese War|Russo–Japanese War]].<ref>Oleg Benesch. ''[https://www.amazon.com/Inventing-Way-Samurai-Nationalism-Internationalism/dp/0198754256/ Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018140338/https://www.amazon.com/Inventing-Way-Samurai-Nationalism-Internationalism/dp/0198754256 |date=2016-10-18 }}'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|0198706626}}, {{ISBN|9780198706625}}</ref>

The entrepreneur [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]] appreciated bushido and emphasized that maintaining the morale of scholars is the essence of eternal life.<ref>[http://www.aozora.jp/misc/cards/000296/files/02yasegamanno_setsu.pdf 瘠我慢の説] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116153346/http://www.aozora.jp/misc/cards/000296/files/02yasegamanno_setsu.pdf |date=2014-01-16 }}</ref><ref name="mysteries-exposed">[http://www.peacehall.com/forum/lishi/486.shtml 许介鳞：日本「武士道」揭谜 (Japanese "Bushido" the mysteries exposed)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112045722/http://www.peacehall.com/forum/lishi/486.shtml |date=2014-01-12 }}</ref> Nitoto Inazuke submitted his book, ''Bushido'', to [[Emperor Meiji]] and stated, "Bushido is prosperous here, assists Komo, and promotes the national style, so that the public will return to the patriotic virtues of loyal ministers." He wrote that bushido has slightly different requirements for men and women. For women, bushido means guarding their chastity, educating their children, supporting their husbands and maintaining their families.<ref>[http://www.peacehall.com/forum/lishi/486.shtml 许介鳞：日本「武士道」揭谜] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112045722/http://www.peacehall.com/forum/lishi/486.shtml |date=2014-01-12 }}</ref>

The ''[[junshi]]'' suicide of [[Nogi Maresuke|General Nogi Maresuke]] and his wife on the death of Emperor Meiji earned praise as an example of opposition to the trend of decaying morals in Japan. It also earned criticism from those who believed that aspect of bushido should not be revived.<ref>[[Herbert P. Bix]], ''[[Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan]]'' p 42-3 {{ISBN|0-06-019314-X}}</ref>

After the Meiji Restoration, the martial arts etiquette represented by [[Ogasawara-ryū]] (小笠原流) popularized training.<ref>[http://www.ogasawararyu-reihou.com/outline/history.html Ogasawara Ritual Law]</ref> Bushido-influenced martial arts and education corresponded with nationalistic ideals prevalent prior to 1941. Honoring tradition through bushido-inspired martial skills enabled society to remain interconnected, harnessing society's reverence of ancestral practices for national strength.<ref name="Patterson 14">{{harvnb|Patterson|2008|p=14}}</ref> According to researcher William R. Patterson, "The martial arts were seen as a way not to maintain ancient martial techniques but instead to preserve a traditional value system, Bushido, that could be used to nurture national spirit. In the midst of modernization the Japanese were struggling to hold onto some traditions that were uniquely Japanese and that could unify them as countrymen."<ref name="Patterson 14"/> For example, [[Kanō Jigorō]] argued, "Because judo developed based on the martial arts of the past, if the martial arts practitioners of the past had things that are of value, those who practice judo should pass all those things on. Among these, the samurai spirit should be celebrated even in today's society."{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

During interbellum and Second World War [[Shōwa (1926–1989)|Shōwa Japan]], bushido was pressed into use for militarism<ref>"[http://www.wanpela.com/holdouts/history.html No Surrender: Background History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134723/http://www.wanpela.com/holdouts/history.html |date=2011-07-18 }}"</ref> [[Japanese propaganda during World War II#Bushido|to present war as purifying, and death a duty]].<ref>David Powers, "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/japan_no_surrender_01.shtml Japan: No Surrender in World War Two] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929201011/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/japan_no_surrender_01.shtml |date=2019-09-29 }}"</ref> Bushido was pitched as revitalizing traditional values and "transcending the modern".<ref>[[John W. Dower]], ''War Without Mercy:  Race & Power in the Pacific War'' p1 {{ISBN|0-394-50030-X}}</ref> Bushido would provide a spiritual shield to let soldiers fight to the end.<ref>[[Richard Overy]], ''Why the Allies Won'' p 6 {{ISBN|0-393-03925-0}}</ref> When giving orders, [[General Hideki Tojo]] routinely slapped the faces of the men under his command, saying face-slapping was a "means of training" men who came from families that were not part of the samurai caste, and for whom bushido was not second nature.<ref>{{cite book |last=Browne |first=Courtney |year=1998 |title=Tojo The Last Banzai |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=Boston |isbn=0306808447 |page=40|ref= {{sfnRef|Browne}} }}</ref> Tojo wrote a chapter in the book ''Hijōji kokumin zenshū'' (''Essays in time of national emergency'') which the Army Ministry published in March 1934. It called for Japan to become a totalitarian "national defense state".{{sfn|Bix|p=277}} It included 15 essays by senior generals and argued Japan defeated Russia in the Russo–Japanese War because bushido gave the Japanese superior willpower: they did not fear death, unlike the Russians who wanted to live.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bix | first = Herbert P. | author-link = Herbert P. Bix | date = September 4, 2001 | title = Hirohito and the making of modern Japan | publisher = HarperCollins | isbn = 978-0-06-093130-8 | page=277 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zjmVltzm1kYC | access-date = November 11, 2011 | ref = {{sfnRef|Bix}}}}</ref>

[[File:USS Bunker Hill hit by two Kamikazes.jpg|thumb|When the aircraft carrier {{USS|Bunker Hill|CV-17|6}} was hit by two ''[[kamikaze]]s'' on 11 May 1945 there were 389 personnel killed or missing and 264 were wounded.<ref>[http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/17.htm Bunker Hill CV-17], NavSource Online: Aircraft Carrier Photo Archive</ref>]]
As the Second World War turned, the spirit of bushido was invoked to urge that all depended on the firm and united soul of the nation.{{sfn|Hoyt|1986|p=334}} When Japan lost the [[Battle of Attu]], the government attempted to paint the more than two thousand Japanese deaths as an inspirational epic for the fighting spirit of the nation.<ref>[[John Toland (author)|John Toland]], ''[[The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936-1945]]'' p 444 Random House New York 1970</ref>  Arguments that the plans for the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], involving all Japanese ships, would expose Japan to serious danger if they failed, were countered with the plea that the Navy be permitted to "bloom as flowers of death".<ref>John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945'' p 539 Random House New York 1970</ref> The Japanese believed that indoctrination in bushido would give them the edge as the Japanese longed to die for the emperor, while the Americans were afraid to die. However, superior American pilot training and airplanes meant the Japanese were outclassed by the Americans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willmott |first=H.P. |year=1984 |title=June 1944 |publisher=Blandford Press |location=Poole, United Kingdom |isbn=0-7137-1446-8 |page=213 |ref={{sfnRef|Willmott}} |url=https://archive.org/details/june194400will}}</ref> The first proposals of [[Kamikaze|organized suicide attacks]] met resistance. While bushido called for a warrior to be always aware of death, they were not to view it as the sole end. However, desperation brought about acceptance{{sfn|Hoyt|1986|p=356}} and such attacks were acclaimed as the true spirit of bushido.{{sfn|Hoyt|1986|p=360}}

Bushido regarded surrender as cowardly. Those who did forfeited their honor and lost dignity and respect:<ref name="borch">{{cite book |last1=Borch |first1=Fred |title=Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191082955 |pages=31–32 |access-date=2019-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128213146/https://books.google.com/books?id=sn8yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |archive-date=2020-01-28 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{blockquote|As Japan continued its modernization in the early 20th century, her armed forces became convinced that success in battle would be assured if Japanese soldiers, sailors, and airmen had the "spirit" of ''Bushido''.{{nbsp}}... The result was that the ''Bushido'' code of behavior "was inculcated into the Japanese soldier as part of his basic training". Each soldier was indoctrinated to accept that it was the greatest honor to die for the Emperor and it was cowardly to surrender to the enemy.{{nbsp}}... ''Bushido'' therefore explains why the Japanese in the [[Netherlands East Indies|NEI]] so mistreated POWs in their custody. Those who had surrendered to the Japanese—regardless of how courageously or honorably they had fought—merited nothing but contempt; they had forfeited all honor and literally deserved nothing. Consequently, when the Japanese murdered POWs by shooting, beheading, and drowning, these acts were excused since they involved the killing of men who had forfeited all rights to be treated with dignity or respect. While civilian internees were certainly in a different category from POWs, it is reasonable to think that there was a "spill-over" effect from the tenets of ''Bushido''.| [[Fred Borch]], ''Military Trials of War Criminals in the Netherlands East Indies 1946–1949''}}

The practice of beheading captured soldiers and prisoners originates from samurai culture in the 14th century or earlier.<ref name="Gaskin, Carol 2004"/><ref name="headhunters"/> Japanese propaganda claimed prisoners of war captured during the Second World War denied mistreatment, and declared they were treated well by virtue of bushido generosity.{{sfn|Hoyt|1986|p=256}} Broadcast interviews with prisoners were described as not propaganda and voluntarily given based on such sympathy for the enemy that only bushido could inspire.{{sfn|Hoyt|1986|p=257}}

During the Second World War, many Japanese infantry were trapped on [[Guam]], surrounded by Allied forces and low on supplies.{{sfn|Dixon|Gilda|Bulgrin|2012|p=110}} Despite being outnumbered and in horrific conditions, many soldiers refused to surrender. Nitobe Inazō wrote, "They continued to honor the Bushido code, believing that to rush into the thick of battle and to be slain in it, is easy enough{{nbsp}}... but, it is true courage to live when it is right to live, and to die only when it is right to die".<ref name="Nitobi 2006">Nitobe, Inazō. 2006 ''Bushido: The Soul of Japan''. Stepney, Australia: Axiom Publishing.</ref><ref name="dixon 113">{{harvnb|Dixon|Gilda|Bulgrin|2012|p=113}}</ref>