Editing Book of the Dead (section)

==Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife==
[[File:Egypt dauingevekten.jpg|thumb|A vignette in The Papyrus of Ani, from Spell 30B: ''Spell For Not Letting Ani's Heart Create Opposition Against Him, in the Gods' Domain'', which contains a depiction of the ''ba'' of the deceased]]
The spells in the ''Book of the Dead'' depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The ''Book of the Dead'' is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area.

===Preservation===
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various ''kheperu'', or modes of existence.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.16-17</ref> Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being. [[Mummification]] served to preserve and transform the physical body into ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Sah (spiritual body)|sah]]'', an idealized form with divine aspects;<ref>Taylor 2010, p.17 & 20</ref> the ''Book of the Dead''  contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification.<ref>For instance, Spell 154. Taylor 2010, p.161</ref> The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jeweled [[Scarab (artifact)|heart scarab]]s with a body to provide a replacement. The ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Ka (vital essence)|ka]]'', or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ''ka'' was satisfied.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.163-4</ref> The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the ''Book'', and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.163</ref> The ''[[Ba (Egyptian soul)|ba]]'' was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ''ba'', depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.17, 164</ref> Finally, the ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Shut (shadow)|shut]]'', or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.164</ref> If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an ''[[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul#Akh (intellect)|akh]]''. An ''akh'' was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.17</ref>

===Afterlife===
{{main|Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs}}
The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the ''Book of the Dead'', the dead were taken into the presence of the god [[Osiris]], who was confined to the subterranean [[Duat]]. There are also spells to enable the ''ba'' or ''akh'' of the dead to join [[Ra]] as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight off [[Apep]].<ref>Spells 100&ndash;2, 129&ndash;131 and 133&ndash;136. Taylor 2010, p.239&ndash;241</ref> As well as joining the gods, the ''Book of the Dead'' also depicts the dead living on in the '[[Aaru|Field of Reeds]]', a paradisiac likeness of the real world.<ref>Spells 109, 110 and 149. Taylor 2010, p.238&ndash;240</ref> The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the [[Ennead|Great Ennead]], a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named ''shabti'', or later ''[[ushabti|ushebti]]''. These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the ''Book of the Dead'', requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.242&ndash;245</ref> It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris – [''Name'']" in the ''Book of the Dead''.

[[Image:Bookofthedead-144145.jpg|thumb|right|Two 'gate spells'. On the top register, Ani and his wife face the 'seven gates of the House of Osiris'. Below, they encounter ten of the 21 'mysterious portals of the House of Osiris in the [[Aaru|Field of Reeds]]'. All are guarded by unpleasant protectors.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.143</ref>]]

The path to the afterlife as laid out in the ''Book of the Dead'' was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.135</ref> These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the ''Book of the Dead''; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.136&ndash;7</ref> Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the ''Book of the Dead'' equipped its owner to escape their attentions.<ref>Taylor 2010, p. 188</ref>  As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles.<ref>Taylor 2010, p. 184&ndash;7</ref>

===Judgment===
[[File:Ani_chap125.jpg|thumb|Papyrus of Ani: some of the 42 Judges of Maat are visible, seated and in small size.]]
[[File:The_judgement_of_the_dead_in_the_presence_of_Osiris.jpg|thumb|The Weighing of the Heart as depicted in the Papyrus of Hunefer (19th Dynasty, c. 1300 BC)]]The deceased's first task was to correctly address each of the forty-two [[Assessors of Maat]] by name, while reciting the sins they did not commit during their lifetime.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coogan |first1=Michael D. |title=A Reader of Ancient Near Eastern Texts: Sources for the Study of the Old Testament,"Negative Confessions" |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |pages=149–150}}</ref> This process allowed the dead to demonstrate that they knew each of the judges' names or Ren and established that they were pure, and free of sin.

If all the obstacles of the ''Duat'' could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the "[[Weighing of the Heart]]" ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the god [[Anubis]] into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a [[Maat#42 Negative Confessions (Papyrus of Ani)|list of 42 sins]],<ref>Taylor 2010, p. 208</ref> reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess [[Maat]], who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name.<ref>Taylor 2010, p.209</ref> At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming ''maa-kheru'', meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice".<ref>Taylor 2010, p.215</ref> If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called ''[[Ammit]]'', the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and rather unpleasant end.<ref name="Taylor 2010, p.212">Taylor 2010, p.212</ref>

This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not".<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.14">Faulkner 1994, p.14</ref> While the [[Ten Commandments]] of [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality.<ref>Taylor 2010,p.204&ndash;5</ref>  Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure.<ref name="Taylor 2010, p.212"/> Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife",<ref name="Faulkner 1994, p.14"/> while [[Geraldine Pinch]] suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behavior.<ref>Pinch 1994, p.155</ref>