Editing Blackberry (section)

== Cultivation ==
Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries, with nearly the entire crop being produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe.<ref name="perry">{{cite web |author1=Perry, Mark J. |date=7 October 2017 |title=Mexico's berry bounty fuels trade dispute – U.S. consumers dismiss U.S. berry farmers' complaints as 'sour berries' |url=http://www.aei.org/publication/mexicos-berry-bounty-fuels-trade-dispute-u-s-consumers-dismiss-u-s-berry-farmers-complaints-as-sour-berries/ |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC}}</ref> Until 2018, the Mexican market was almost entirely based on the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi', but the EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling), but Tupy fell out of favor in some Mexican growing regions.<ref name="tupy">{{cite web |date=10 May 2018 |title=Tupy blackberry, at risk due to lack of interest in its production |url=https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2194285/tupy-blackberry-at-risk-due-to-lack-of-interest-in-its-production/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621162401/https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2194285/tupy-blackberry-at-risk-due-to-lack-of-interest-in-its-production/ |archive-date=21 June 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=FreshPlaza}}</ref> In the US, [[Oregon]] is the leading commercial blackberry producer, producing {{convert|42600000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=off}} on {{convert|6300|acre|ha|order=flip}} in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Release June 27, 2018 |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Oregon/Publications/Fruits_Nuts_and_Berries/2018/FR06_01.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220002859/https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Oregon/Publications/Fruits_Nuts_and_Berries/2018/FR06_01.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Northwest Regional Field Office}}</ref><ref name="amrc">{{cite web |date=1 February 2019 |title=Blackberries |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/blackberries |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Agriculture Marketing Resource Center}}</ref>

Numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe and the United States.<ref name=carroll/><ref name="usda18">{{cite web |date=26 June 2018 |title=Thornless processing blackberry cultivars |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/corvallis-or/horticultural-crops-research/hcru/small-fruit-breeding/thornless-processing-blackberry-cultivars/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621154117/https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/corvallis-or/horticultural-crops-research/hcru/small-fruit-breeding/thornless-processing-blackberry-cultivars/ |archive-date=21 June 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Evergreen blackberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission |url=http://oregon-berries.com/blackberry.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004042656/http://www.oregon-berries.com/blackberry.cfm |archive-date=4 October 2008 |access-date=13 June 2017 |website=Oregon-Berries.com}}</ref> Since the many species form [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry.<ref name="usda18" />

=== History ===
Modern [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] and [[cultivar]] development took place mostly in the US. In 1880, a hybrid blackberry-raspberry named the [[loganberry]] was developed in [[Santa Cruz, California]], by an American judge and [[horticulturalist]], [[James Harvey Logan]]. One of the first thornless varieties was developed in 1921, but the berries lost much of their flavor. Common thornless cultivars developed from the 1990s to the early 21st century by the [[US Department of Agriculture]] enabled efficient machine-harvesting, higher yields, larger and firmer fruit, and improved flavor, including the ''Triple Crown'',<ref name="gg">{{cite web |author=Harding, Deborah |title=The History of the Blackberry Fruit |url=https://www.gardenguides.com/123417-history-blackberry-fruit.html |access-date=20 June 2019 |website=gardenguides.com |publisher=Garden Guides, Leaf Group Ltd.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2 February 1998 |title='Triple Crown' thornless blackberry |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=89162 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture}}</ref> ''Black Diamond'', ''Black Pearl'', and ''Nightfall'', a [[marionberry]].<ref name="usda18" />

=== Hybrids ===
[[File:Black Butte blackberry.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Butte blackberry]]
'Marion' (marketed as "[[marionberry]]") is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "[[Olallieberry]]") berries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marionberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission |url=http://oregon-berries.com/marionberry.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919230407/http://www.oregon-berries.com/marionberry.cfm |archive-date=19 September 2008 |access-date=13 June 2017 |website=Oregon-Berries.com}}</ref> 'Olallie' in turn is a cross between [[loganberry]] and [[youngberry]]. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] [[Agricultural Research Service]] (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at [[Oregon State University]] in [[Corvallis, Oregon]].<ref name="usda18" />

The most recent cultivars released from this program are the thornless cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl', and 'Nightfall' as well as the early-ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', '[[Kotata Berry|Kotata]]', 'Pacific', and 'Cascade'.<ref name="usda18" />

Varieties with good commercial characteristics developed in [[Arkansas]] are grown in nurseries in [[Oklahoma]].<ref name=carroll/> Such blackberries are easy to grow, and may produce fruit for a decade or more.<ref name=carroll/> These varieties have diverse flavors varying from sweet to tart.<ref name=carroll/>

===Trailing===
Trailing blackberries are vigorous and crown-forming, require a [[trellis (agriculture)|trellis]] for support, and are less cold-hardy than erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the [[Pacific Northwest]], these types do well in similar climates, such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Chile, and the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean countries]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Thornless===
Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at the [[John Innes Centre]] in [[Norwich]], UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in [[Beltsville, Maryland]]. These are crown-forming and very vigorous and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin', 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Maree', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem', and 'Triple Crown'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Folta |first1=Kevin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries |last2=Kole |first2=Chittaranjan |publisher=CRC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1578087075 |pages=69–71 |author-link=Kevin Folta}}</ref> 'Loch Ness' and 'Loch Tay' have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]].<ref name="RHSveg">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 2018 |title=AGM Plants © RHS – CROPS BLACKBERRIES |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-fruit-and-vegetables.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805203509/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-fruit-and-vegetables.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2018 |access-date=21 November 2019 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref> The cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there.

===Erect===
The [[University of Arkansas]] has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho', and 'Kiowa'.<ref name="ge71">{{cite book |last1=Folta |first1=Kevin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries |last2=Kole |first2=Chittaranjan |publisher=CRC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1578087075 |page=71 |author-link=Kevin Folta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fernandez |first1=Gina |last2=Ballington |first2=James |title=Growing blackberries in North Carolina |url=http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/growing-blackberries-in-north-carolina |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108073141/http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/growing-blackberries-in-north-carolina |archive-date=8 January 2016 |access-date=9 October 2015 |publisher=North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina University Press |page=2}}</ref> They are also responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.<ref name="ge71" />

===Primocane===
In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the [[University of Arkansas]] and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting blackberry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vincent |first=Christopher I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpbx5-gxax4C&q=Prime+Jim+Prime+Jan+2004&pg=PA2 |title=Yield Dynamics of Primocane-fruiting Blackberries Under High-tunnels and Ambient Conditions, Including Plant Growth Unit Estimations and Arthropod Pest Considerations |year=2008 |isbn=978-0549964759 |page=2 |access-date=12 November 2012}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above; however, the canes that emerge in the spring will flower in midsummer and fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climates such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=J.R. |last2=Strick |first2=B.C. |last3=Thompson |first3=E. |last4=Finn |first4=C.E. |date=2012 |title=Progress and challenges in primocane-fruiting blackberry breeding and cultural management |journal=Acta Horticulturae |volume=926 |issue=926 |pages=387–392 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.926.54}}</ref>

'Illini Hardy', a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois]], is cane hardy in zone 5, where blackberry production has traditionally been problematic since canes often failed to survive the winter.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Mexico and Chile===
Blackberry production in Mexico expanded considerably in the early 21st century.<ref name="perry" /><ref name="amrc" /> In 2017, Mexico had 97% of the [[market share]] for fresh blackberries imported into the United States, while Chile had 61% of the market share for American imports of frozen blackberries.<ref name="amrc" />

While once based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. The 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche', and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents.<ref name="antunes">{{cite journal |author1=Antunes, L.E.C. |author2=Rassieira, M.C.B. |year=2004 |title=Aspectos Técnicos da Cultura da Amora-Preta |journal=Pelotas: Embrapa Clima Temperado |language=pt |issn=1516-8840}}</ref> Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown '[[Boysenberry]]' is the male parent. To produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring the plants into bloom.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Diseases and pests===
[[File:Blackberry flower (2).jpg|thumb|The pale pink blackberry blossom]]

Because blackberries belong to the same genus as raspberries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=Fern Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcWQQKJX1xEC&q=Blackberry+disease&pg=PA51 |title=The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control: A Complete Guide to Maintaining a Healthy Garden and Yard the Earth-Friendly Way |last2=Ellis |first2=Barbara W. |last3=Martin |first3=Deborah L. |publisher=[[Rodale, Inc.]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1605296777 |page=51 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> they share the same diseases, including anthracnose (a type of [[canker]]), which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening. Sap flow may also be slowed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Raspberries & Blackberries |url=http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/BUL/BUL0812.pdf |access-date=2012-11-13 |publisher=cals.uidaho.edu |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTuJryWEY64C&q=dwarfing+raspberry+blackberry&pg=PA5 |title=Controlling diseases of raspberries and blackberries |publisher=United States. Science and Education Administration |year=1980 |page=5 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> They also share the same remedies, including the Bordeaux mixture,<ref>{{cite book |last=Waite |first=Merton Benway |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT87201664 |title=Fungicides and their use in preventing diseases of fruits |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/CAT87201664/page/n28 243] |quote=blackberry disease. |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> a combination of lime, water and [[copper(II) sulfate]].<ref>{{cite web |date=June 2010 |title=Bordeaux Mixture |url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7481.html |access-date=13 November 2012 |publisher=ucdavis.edu}}</ref> The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses, which may lead to pests or diseases.<ref name="a-ensminger">{{cite book |last=Ensminger |first=Audrey H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3UD2iL4sAAC&q=blackberry+disease&pg=PA215 |title=Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia: A-H |publisher=CRC Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780849389818 |page=215 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes because wild blackberries may be infected,<ref name="a-ensminger" /> and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shrock |first=Denny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVHanXD-5-IC&q=Purchase+only+blackberries+Gardeners&pg=PA352 |title=Home Gardener's Problem Solver: Symptoms and Solutions for More Than 1,500 Garden Pests and Plant Ailments |publisher=Meredith Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0897215046 |page=352 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref>

The spotted-wing drosophila, ''[[Drosophila suzukii]]'', is a serious pest of blackberries.<ref name="dwalsh-wsu">{{cite web |author=Walsh, Doug |title=Spotted Wing Drosophila Could Pose Threat For Washington Fruit Growers |url=http://sanjuan.wsu.edu/Documents/SWD11.09.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806161628/http://sanjuan.wsu.edu/Documents/SWD11.09.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2010 |access-date=12 November 2012 |publisher=sanjuan.WSU.edu}}</ref> Unlike its vinegar fly relatives, which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, ''D. suzukii'' attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value.<ref name="dwalsh-wsu" />

Another pest is ''Amphorophora rubi'', known as the blackberry aphid, which eats not just blackberries but raspberries as well.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Dennis S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-w8AAAAIAAJ&q=Blackberry+pests&pg=PA228 |title=Agricultural Insect Pests of Temperate Regions and Their Control |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0521240130 |page=228 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puO2UjrlUkAC&q=Amphorophora+rubi+blackberry&pg=PA539 |title=The Review of Applied Entomology: Agricultural, Volume 18 |publisher=[[CAB International]] |year=1931 |page=539 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref><ref>R. L. Blackman, V. F. Eastop and M. Hills (1977). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2358768 Morphological and cytological separation of Amphorophora Buckton (Homoptera: Aphididae) feeding on European raspberry and blackberry ( Rubus spp.)]. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 67, pp 285–296 {{doi|10.1017/S000748530001110X}}</ref>

''Byturus tomentosus'' ([[raspberry beetle]]), ''[[Lampronia corticella]]'' (raspberry moth) and ''[[Anthonomus rubi]]'' (strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Squire |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2sk1bJqlzsC&pg=PA39 |title=The Garden Pest & Diseases Specialist: The Essential Guide to Identifying and Controlling Pests and Diseases of Ornamentals, Vegetables and Fruits |publisher=[[New Holland Publishers]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1845374853 |page=39 |access-date=12 November 2012}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>{{nutritional value
| name    = Blackberries, raw (''Rubus'' spp.)
| image   = Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus).jpg
| caption = {{center|'''Close-up view of a blackberry'''}}
| kJ=180
| protein=1.39 g
| fat=0.49 g
| carbs=9.61 g
| fiber=5.3 g
| sugars=4.88 g
| calcium_mg=29
| iron_mg=0.62
| magnesium_mg=20
| phosphorus_mg=22
| potassium_mg=162
| sodium_mg=1
| zinc_mg=0.53
| manganese_mg=0.646
| vitC_mg=21.0
| thiamin_mg=0.020
| riboflavin_mg=0.026
| niacin_mg=0.646
| pantothenic_mg=
| vitB6_mg=0.030
| folate_ug=25
| betacarotene_ug=
| vitA_iu=214
| lutein_ug=
| vitE_mg=1.17
| vitK_ug=19.8
| water=88 g
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173946/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}