Editing Battle of Brunanburh (section)

==Location==

[[File:In the Rough - geograph.org.uk - 46233.jpg|thumb|right|The Brackenwood golf course at [[Bebington]], [[Metropolitan Borough of Wirral|Wirral]]]]

The location of the battlefield is unknown{{sfn|Stenton|2001|p=343}} and has been the subject of lively debate among historians since at least the 17th century.<ref>Parker, Joanne. ”The Victorian Imagination". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 400–401</ref> Over forty locations have been proposed, from the southwest of England to Scotland,{{sfn|Foot|2011|pp=172–173}}<ref>Hill, Paul. ''The Age of Athelstan: Britain´s Forgotten History''. Tempus. 2004. pp. 141–142</ref> although most historians agree that a location in [[Northern England]] is the most plausible.{{sfn|Foot|2011|pp=174–175}}{{sfn|Wood|2013|pp=138–159}}

Wirral Archaeology, a local volunteer group, believes that it may have identified the site of the battle near [[Bromborough]] on the [[Wirral Peninsula|Wirral]].<ref name=nac>{{cite web|url=https://liverpooluniversitypress.blog/2019/10/22/the-search-for-the-battle-of-brunanburh-is-over/|title=The search for the Battle of Brunanburh, is over.|author=Wirral Archaeology Press Release|publisher=Liverpool University Press blog|date=22 October 2019}}</ref> They found a field with a heavy concentration of artifacts which may be a result of metal working in a tenth-century army camp.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medievalists.net/2019/10/battle-brunanburh-battlefield-discovered/|first=Michael|last=Livingston|title=Has the Battle of Brunanburh battlefield been discovered?|publisher=medievalists.net|year=2019}}</ref> The location of the field is being kept secret to protect it from [[Nighthawking|nighthawks]]. As of 2020, they are seeking funds to pursue their research further.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wirralarchaeology.org/pages/project/battle-of-brunanburh-937ad/|title=The Search for the Battle of Brunanburh.|author=Wirral Archaeology|year=2019}}</ref> The military historian Michael Livingston argues in his 2021 book ''Never Greater Slaughter'' that Wirral Archaeology's case for Bromborough is conclusive, but this claim is criticised in a review of the book by Thomas Williams. He accepts that Bromborough is the only surviving place name which originates in Old English ''Brunanburh'', but says that there could have been others. He comments that evidence of military metal working is unsurprising in an area of Viking activity: it is not evidence for a battle, let alone any particular battle.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Thomas |last=Williams|title=Review of 'Never Greater Slaughter: Brunanburh and the Birth of England'|page=58|date=September–October 2021|journal=British Archaeology|issn=1357-4442}}</ref> In an article in ''[[Notes and Queries]]'' in 2022, Michael Deakin questions the philological case for [[Bromborough]] as ''Brunanburh'', suggesting that the first element in the name is 'brown' and not 'Bruna'. Bromborough would therefore be 'the brown [stone-built] manor or fort'. The corollary of this argument being the early names of Bromborough cannot be derived from Old English ''Brunanburh''.<ref name=Deakin>{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/nq/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/notesj/gjac020/6534123|title = Bromborough, Brunanburh, and Dingesmere}}</ref> [[Michael Wood (historian)|Michael Wood]], in an article in ''[[Notes and Queries]]'' in 2017, discusses the alternative spelling ''Brunnanburh'' 'the burh at the spring or stream', found in several Anglo-Saxon Chronicle manuscripts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/nq/article-abstract/64/3/365/4035784?redirectedFrom=fulltext|title = The Spelling of Brunanburh}}</ref>

The medieval texts employ a plethora of alternative names for the site of the battle, which historians have attempted to link to known places.<ref>Hill, Paul. ''The Age of Athelstan: Britain´s Forgotten History''. Tempus. 2004. pp. 139–153</ref>{{sfn|Foot|2011|pp=172–179}}<ref>Cavill, Paul. ”The Place-Name Debate". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 327–349</ref> The earliest relevant document is the “''Battle of Brunanburh''” poem in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] (version A), written within two decades of the battle, which names the battlefield location as “''ymbe Brunanburh''” (around Brunanburh).<ref>Anonymous. "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Version A)”. In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook. '' Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 40–43</ref> Many other medieval sources contain variations on the name Brunanburh, such as ''Brune'',<ref>Anonymous. ”Annales Cambriae". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 48–49</ref><ref>Anonymous. ”Brenhinedd y Saesson". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 90–91</ref> ''Brunandune'',<ref>Æthelweard. ”Chronicon". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 48–49</ref> ''Et Brunnanwerc'',<ref name="Durham 2011. pp.54-5"/> ''Bruneford'',<ref>William of Malmesbury. ”Gesta Regum Anglorum". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook.'' Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 56–61</ref> ''Cad Dybrunawc''<ref>Gwynfardd Brycheiniog. ”Canu y Dewi". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 66–67</ref> ''Duinbrunde''<ref>Anonymous. ”Scottish Chronicle". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 132–133</ref> and ''Brounnyngfelde''.<ref>Walter Bower. ”Scotichronicon". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 138–139</ref>

It is thought that the recurring element ''Brun-'' could be a personal name, a river name, or the Old English or Old Norse word for a spring or stream.<ref name="Cavill, Paul 2011. pp.331-5">Cavill, Paul. ”The Place-Name Debate". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 331–335</ref>{{sfn|Wood|2013|pp=138–159}} Less mystery surrounds the suffixes ''–burh/–werc, -dun, -ford'' and ''–feld, ''which are the Old English words for a fortification, low hill, ford, and open land respectively.<ref name="Cavill, Paul 2011. pp.331-5"/>

[[File:The Beck - Barton-upon-Humber.jpg|thumb|Ancient artesian spring at [[Barton-upon-Humber]]]]

Not all the place-names contain the ''Brun-'' element, however. [[Symeon of Durham]] (early 12th C) gives the alternative name ''Weondune'' (or ''Wendune'') for the battle site,<ref name="Durham 2011. pp.54-5"/><ref name="Durham 2011. pp.64-5">Symeon of Durham. ”Historia Regum". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook.'' Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 64–65</ref> while the [[Annals of Clonmacnoise]] say the battle took place on the “''plaines of othlyn''”<ref>Anonymous. ”Annals of Clonmacnoise". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook. '' Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 152–153</ref> Egil's Saga names the locations ''Vínheiðr'' and ''Vínuskóga''.<ref name="Anonymous 2011. pp.70-1">Anonymous. ”Egil´s Saga". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook.'' Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 70–71</ref>

Few medieval texts refer to a known place, although the [[Humber]] estuary is mentioned by several sources. [[John of Worcester]]'s ''Chronicon'' (early 12th C),<ref name="Worcester 2011. pp.56"/> [[Symeon of Durham]]'s ''Historia Regum'' (mid-12th C),<ref name="Durham 2011. pp.64-5"/> the ''Chronicle of Melrose'' (late 12th C)<ref>Anonymous. ”Chronica de Mailros". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 66–67</ref> and [[Robert Mannyng]] of Brunne's ''Chronicle'' (1338)<ref name="Brune 2011. pp.126-33">Robert Mannyng of Brune. ”Chronicle". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 126–133</ref> all state that Olaf's fleet entered the mouth of the Humber, while [[Robert of Gloucester (historian)|Robert of Gloucester]]'s ''Metrical Chronicle'' (late 13th C)<ref>Robert of Gloucester. ”Metrical Chronicle". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 84–89</ref> says the invading army arrived "south of the Humber". [[Peter of Langtoft]]'s ''Chronique'' (ca. 1300)<ref>Peter of Langtoft. ”Chronique". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 90–97</ref> states the armies met at “''Bruneburgh on the Humber''”, while Robert Mannyng of Brunne's ''Chronicle'' (1338)<ref name="Brune 2011. pp.126-33"/> claims the battle was fought at “''Brunesburgh on Humber''”. [[Pseudo-Ingulf]] (ca. 1400)<ref>Pseudo-Ingulf. ”Ingulfi Croylandensis Historia". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 134–139</ref> says that as Æthelstan led his army into Northumbria (i.e. north of the Humber) he met on his way many pilgrims coming home from [[Beverley]]. [[Hector Boece]]'s ''Historia'' (1527)<ref>Hector Boece. ”Historiae". In ''The Battle of Brunanburh. A Casebook''. Ed. Michael Livingston. University of Exeter Press. 2011. pp. 146–153</ref> claims that the battle was fought by the [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|River Ouse]], which flows into the Humber estuary.

Few other geographical hints are contained in the medieval sources. The poem in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' says that the invaders fled over deep water on ''Dingesmere'', perhaps meaning an area of the Irish Sea or an unidentified lake or river.{{sfn|Swanton|2000|p=109 n. 8}} Deakin noted that the term ''ding'' had been used in the Old English [[Andreas (poem)]] where it is suggested to have been used metaphorically for a grave and/or Hell. His analysis of the context of lines 53–56 of the ''Brunanburh'' poem suggest to him that ''dingesmere'' is a poetic and figurative term for the sea.<ref name=Deakin/>

[[Egil's Saga]] contains more detailed topographical information than any of the other medieval texts, although its usefulness as historical evidence is disputed.{{sfn|Foot|2011|pp=179–180}} According to this account, Olaf's army occupied an unnamed fortified town north of a heath, with large inhabited areas nearby. Æthelstan's camp was pitched to the south of Olaf, between a river on one side and a forest on raised ground on the other, to the north of another unnamed town at several hours' ride from Olaf's camp.<ref name="Anonymous 2011. pp.70-1"/>

Many sites have been suggested, including:
* [[Bromborough]] on the Wirral{{efn|According to [[Michael Livingston]], the case for a location in the [[Metropolitan Borough of Wirral|Wirral]] has wide support among many scholars.{{sfn|Livingston|2011|p=19}} Charters from the 1200s suggest that [[Bromborough]] (a town on the Wirral Peninsula<ref name=dingesmere>{{cite journal|last1=Cavill|first1=Paul|last2=Harding|first2=Stephen|last3=Jesch|first3=Judith|title=Revisiting ''Dingesmere''|journal=Journal of the English Place Name Society|date=October 2004|volume=36|pages=25–36}}</ref>) was originally named ''Brunanburh''{{sfn|Foot|2011|p=178}} (which could mean "Bruna's fort").{{sfn|Cavill|2001|p=105}} In his essay "The Place-Name Debate", Paul Cavill listed the steps by which this transition may have occurred.<ref>Cavill, Paul. "The Place-Name Debate", in {{harvnb|Livingston|2011|p=328}}</ref> Evidence suggests that there were Scandinavian settlements in the area starting in the late 800s, and the town is also situated near the [[River Mersey]], which according to [[Sarah Foot]] was a commonly used route by Vikings sailing from Ireland.{{sfn|Foot|2011|p=178}} N.J. Higham suggests the Mersey was never a medieval shipping lane of any consequence. He doubts the Viking fleet used the river because of the extensive mosslands which would have hampered disembarkation. ("The Context of Brunanburh" in Rumble, A.R.; A.D. Mills (1997). Names, Places, People. An Onomastic Miscellany in Memory of John McNeal Dodgson. Stamford: Paul Watkins. p153). Additionally, the ''Chronicle'' states that the invaders escaped at ''[[Dingesmere]]'', and ''Dingesmere'' could be interpreted as "mere of the Thing". The word ''Thing'' (or þing, in [[Old Norse]]) might be a reference to the Viking [[Thing (assembly)|Thing]] (or assembly) at [[Thingwall]] on the Wirral. In Old English, ''mere'' refers to a body of water, although the specific type of body varies depending on the context. In some cases, it refers to a [[wetland]], and a large wetland is present in the area. Therefore, in their article "Revisiting ''Dingesmere''", Cavill, Harding, and Jesch propose that ''Dingesmere'' is a reference to a marshland or wetland near the Viking Thing at Thingwall on the Wirral Peninsula.<ref name=dingesmere/> Deakin questions the onomastic process by which ''Dingesmere'' is supposed to have been created and also argues that such a wetland on the tenth-century Wirral coast of the Dee was unlikely.<ref name=Deakin/> Since the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' describes the battle as taking place "ymbe Brunanburh" ("around Brunanburh"), numerous locations near Bromborough have been proposed, including the [[Brackenwood Golf Course]] in [[Bebington, Wirral]] (formerly within the Bromborough [[parish]]).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/merseyside/4112301.stm Birthplace of Englishness 'found'.] [[BBC News Online]] (URL accessed 27 August 2006).</ref> Recent research on the Wirral has identified a possible landing site for the Norse and Scots.<ref>Capener, David, ''Brunanburh and the Routes to Dingesmere'', 2014. Countyvise Ltd{{ISBN?}}{{page?|date=April 2023}}</ref> This is a feature called [[Wallasey Pool]]. This is in the north of the Wirral near the River Mersey. The pool is linked to the river by a creek which, before it was developed into modern docks, stretched inland some two miles, was, at high tide over {{Convert|20|ft||0}} deep and was surrounded by a moss or mere which is now known as Bidston Moss. In addition to this landing site an unconfirmed Roman Road is suggested to have led from the area of Bidston to Chester. Following the route of this road would take an invading force through the area the battle is believed to have been fought. Landscape survey<ref>Capener, David, 2014</ref> has identified a likely position for Bruna's burh. This survey places the burh at Brimstage approximately {{Convert|11|mi|}} from Chester.}}
* [[Barnsdale]], [[South Yorkshire]]{{efn|The civil parish of [[Burghwallis]] was recorded as "Burg" in the [[Domesday Book]], likely because of a Roman fort situated near the place where the Great North Road ([[Ermine Street]]) is met by the road from [[Templeborough]]. The site is overlooked by a hill called "Barnsdale Bar", past which flows the [[River Went]]. [[Michael Wood (historian)|Michael Wood]] has suggested this site, noting the similarity between Went and Symeon of Durham's ''Wendun''.{{sfn|Wood|2013|pp=138–159}} }}
* [[Brinsworth]], South Yorkshire{{efn|Michael Wood suggests Tinsley Wood, near [[Brinsworth]], as a possible site of the battle. He notes that there is a hill nearby, White Hill, and observes that the surrounding landscape is strikingly similar to the description of the battlefield contained in ''Egil's Saga''. There is an ancient Roman temple on White Hill, and Wood states that the name Symeon of Durham used for the place of the battle, ''Weondun'', means "the hill where there had been a pagan Roman sanctuary or temple". According to Wood, Frank Stenton believed that this piece of evidence could help in finding the location of the battle. There is also a Roman fort nearby, and ''burh'' means "fortified place" in Old English; Wood suggests that this fort may have been ''Brunanburh''.{{sfn|Wood|2001|pp=206–214}}}}
* [[Leighton Bromswold|Bromswold]]{{efn|According to Alfred Smyth, the original form of the name Bromswold, ''Bruneswald'', could fit with ''Brunanburh'' and other variants of the name.{{sfn|Smyth|1975|pp=51–52}}}}
* [[Burnley]]{{efn|In 1856, [[Burnley Grammar School]] master and [[antiquary]] [[Thomas T. Wilkinson]] published a paper suggesting that the battle occurred on the [[moorland|moors]] above Burnley, noting that the town stands on the [[River Brun]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|1857|pp=21–41}} His work was subsequently referenced and expanded by a number of local authors.{{sfn|Partington|1909|pp=28–43}} Notably Thomas Newbigging argued the battle took place six miles from Burnley, namely in [[Broadclough]], [[Rossendale Valley|Rossendale]], associating the battle with an area known as Broadclough Dykes.{{sfn|Newbigging|1893|pp=9–21}} Broadclough is also said to be the site where a Danish chieftain was killed in a battle between the Danes and Saxons. His grave is said to be at a farm near Stubbylee.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://link4life.org/images/pdfs/local-history-books/history-of-rochdale-fishwick/chapter-xx-miscellany-pages529-540.pdf | title=History of the Parish of Rochdale | publisher=The Rochdale Press | access-date=22 September 2019 | archive-date=17 September 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917135747/https://link4life.org/images/pdfs/local-history-books/history-of-rochdale-fishwick/chapter-xx-miscellany-pages529-540.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>
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* Burnswark, situated near [[Lockerbie]] in southern Scotland{{efn|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/viking/battleview.asp?BattleFieldId=59|title=Battle of Brunanburh|publisher=UK Battlefields Trust|access-date=7 June 2012}}</ref> Burnswark is a hill {{convert|280|m|ft}} tall, and is the site of two Roman military camps and many fortifications from the [[Iron Age]]. It was initially suggested as the site of the battle by George Neilson in 1899 and was the leading theory in the early 1900s, having obtained support from historians such as [[Charles Oman]]. Kevin Halloran argues that the different forms used by various authors when naming the battle site associate it with a hill and fortifications, since ''[[burh]]'' (used by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle poem) means "a fortified place", and ''dune'' (used by [[Æthelweard (historian)|Æthelweard]] and Symeon of Durham, in names such as ''Brunandune'' and ''We(o)ndune'') means "a hill". He also states that the name "Burnswark" could be related to ''Bruneswerce'', another alternative name for the battle site used by Symeon of Durham and [[Geoffrey Gaimar]].{{sfn|Halloran|2005|pp=133–148}} }}
* [[Lanchester, County Durham]]{{efn| [[Andrew Breeze]] has argued for Lanchester, since the Roman fort of [[Longovicium]] overlooks the point where the road known as [[Dere Street]] crossed the [[River Browney]].<ref name=Lanchester>{{Cite web|url = https://www.sal.org.uk/events/2014/12/brunanburh-in-937-bromborough-or-lanchester/|title = Brunanburh in 937: Bromborough or Lanchester?|date = 2014-12-04|access-date = 2015-04-04|last = Breeze|first = Andrew|series = Society of Antiquaries of London: Ordinary Meeting of Fellows}}</ref><ref name= Lanchester2>{{cite book|last = Breeze|first = Andrew|title=Brunanburh Located: The Battlefield and the Poem in Aspects of Medieval English Language and Literature (ed. Michiko Ogura and Hans Sauer)|date=2018|publisher=Peter Lang: Berlin|pages=61–80|url=https://www.peterlang.com/view/title/65791|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref>}}
* [[Hunwick]] in County Durham{{efn|Hunwick in County Durham is suggested by Stefan Bjornsson and Bjorn Verhardsson in their book Brunanburh: Located Through Egil's Saga.<ref>Björnsson, 2020</ref>}}
* [[Londesborough]] and [[Nunburnholme]], East Riding of Yorkshire<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Nunburnholme Cross and the Battle of Brunanburh|first=Sally|last=England|url=http://www.cba-yorkshire.org.uk/forum-plus/|journal=The Archaeological Forum Journal|publisher= Council for British Archaeology|volume=2| year= 2020|pages=24–57}}</ref>
* [[Heysham]], Lancashire<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heyshamheritage.org.uk/CeNtreWoRdS_2012_Article3_Brunanburh.pdf|title=Brun and Brunanburh: Burnley and Heysham|publisher=North West Regional Studies}}</ref>
* [[Barton-upon-Humber]] in North Lincolnshire{{efn|Barton-upon-Humber in North Lincolnshire is the most recent location, suggested by {{harvnb|Deakin|2020|pp=27–44}} }}
*[[Little Weighton]], East Riding of Yorkshire.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bulmer's History and Directory of East Yorkshire (1892).}}</ref>