Editing Ashdown Forest (section)

==Ecology==
[[File:Ashdown Forest Kings Standing.jpg|thumb|right|King's Standing, Ashdown Forest]]

Ashdown Forest is one of the largest single continuous blocks of lowland heath, semi-natural woodland and valley bog in south east England. Its geology is a major influence on its biology and ecology. The underlying sandstone geology of the Ashdown Sands, when combined with a local climate that is generally wetter, cooler and windier than the surrounding area owing to the forest's elevation, which rises from {{convert|200|ft|m}} to over {{convert|700|ft|m}} above sea level, gives rise to sandy, largely podzolic soils that are characteristically acid, clay, and nutrient-poor.<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), pp. 4-5.</ref> On these poor, infertile soils have developed heathland, valley mires and damp woodland. These conditions have never favoured cultivation and have been a barrier to agricultural improvement.

The forest predominantly consists of ''lowland heathland''. Of the 2,472 ha of forest common land, 55% (1365 ha) is heathland while 40% (997 ha) is mixed woodland.<ref>The remaining 5% (112 ha) consists of car parks, picnic areas, golf courses, etc.</ref> Lowland heathland is a particularly valuable but increasingly threatened habitat harbouring rare plant and animal species, which lends the forest importance at a European level. The survival of the forest's extensive heathlands has become all the more important when set against the large-scale loss of English lowland heathland over the last 200 years; within the county of [[East Sussex]], heathland has shrunk by 50% over the last 200 years, and most of what remains is in Ashdown Forest.

===Flora===

====Heathland====
Ashdown Forest is noted for its heathland plants and flowers, such as the [[Gentiana pneumonanthe|marsh gentian]], but it also provides other distinctive or unusual plant habitats.

The extensive areas of dry heath are dominated by [[Calluna|ling]] (''Calluna vulgaris''), [[bell heather]] (''Erica cinerea'') and [[Ulex minor|dwarf gorse]] (''Ulex minor''). Important lichen communities include ''Pycnothelia papillaria''. [[Common bracken]] (''Pteridium aquilinum'') is dominant over large areas. On the damper heath, [[cross-leaved heath]] (''Erica tetralix'') becomes dominant with deer-grass (''[[Trichophorum]] cespitosum''. The heath and bracken communities form a mosaic with acid grassland dominated by [[Molinia caerulea|purple moor-grass]] (''Molinia caerulea'') mingled with many specialised heathland plants such as [[Genista anglica|petty whin]] (''Genista anglica''), [[Salicaceae|creeping willow]] (''Salicaceae'' sp.) and [[Dactylorhiza maculata|heath spotted orchid]] (''Dactylorhiza maculata'').

In the wet areas are found several species of [[Sphagnum|sphagnum moss]] together with [[Narthecium ossifragum|bog asphodel]] (''Narthecium ossifragum''), [[Eriophorum angustifolium|common cotton-grass]] (''Eriophorum angustifolium'') and specialities such as [[Gentiana pneumonanthe|marsh gentian]] (''Gentiana pneumonanthe''), [[Wahlenbergia|ivy-leaved bell flower]] (''Wahlenbergia hederacea''), [[Rhynchospora alba|white-beaked sedge]] (''Rhynchospora alba'') and [[Lycopodiella inundata|marsh club moss]] (''Lycopodiella inundata''). The marsh gentian, noted for its bright blue trumpet-like flowers, has a flowering season lasting from July well into October and is found in about a dozen colonies.

[[Ulex europaeus|Gorse]] (''Ulex europaeus''), [[Betula pendula|silver birch]] (''Betula pendula''), [[Quercus robur|pedunculate oak]] (''Quercus robur'') and [[Pinus sylvestris|Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris'') are scattered across the heath, in places forming extensive areas of secondary woodland and scrub. Older woodlands consist of [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]] (''Fagus sylvatica'') and [[Castanea sativa|sweet chestnut]] (''Castanea sativa''). These contain [[Common bluebell|bluebell]] (''Hyacinthinoides non-scripta''), [[Vaccinium myrtillus|bilberry]] (''Vaccinium myrtillus''), [[Blechnum spicant|hard fern]] (''Blechnum spicant'') and [[Lonicera periclymenum|honeysuckle]] (''Lonicera periclymenum'') with [[Neottia nidus-avis|birds-nest orchid]] (''Neottia nidus-avis'') and [[Epipactis purpurata|violet helleborine]] (''Epipactis purpurata'') found particularly under beech. In the woodlands can also be found [[Anemone nemorosa|wood anemone]] (''Anemone nemorosa'') and [[Oxalis acetosella|common wood sorrel]] (''Oxalis acetosella'').

[[File:Ashdown Forest - Friends Clump.jpg|thumb|right|Friends Clump]]

====Streams and ponds====
Forest streams, often lined by [[alder]] trees such as ''[[Alnus glutinosa]]'', and [[Salix|grey sallow]] ''[[Salix cinerea]]'', birch and oak, cut through the soft sandstone forming steep-sided valleys (ghylls) that are sheltered from winter frosts and remain humid in summer, creating conditions more familiar in the Atlantic-facing western coastal regions of Britain. Uncommon [[bryophyte]]s such as the liverwort ''[[Nardia compressa]]'' and a range of ferns including the mountain fern ''[[Oreopteris limbosperma]]'' and the [[Dryopteris|hay-scented buckler fern]] ''[[Dryopteris aemula]]'' thrive in this “Atlantic” microclimate.

The damming of streams, digging for marl, and quarrying have produced several large ponds containing, particularly in former marl pits, localised rafts of [[Potamogeton natans|broad-leaved pondweed]] ''Potamogeton natans'', beds of [[Typha latifolia|bulrush (reedmace)]] ''Typha latifolia'' and [[Equisetum fluviatile|water horsetail]] ''Equisetum fluviatile''.

====Woodland====
Woodland covers nearly {{convert|1000|ha|acre}} of the forest, 40% of its area<ref>Note: the figures quoted here refer to the land administered by the conservators, and exclude all privately held land.</ref> Most of the woodland on the common land of the forest is young and contains few older trees; there is little ''[[ancient woodland]]'', defined as woodland that has been continuously wooded since 1600. Almost all the latter that exists within the medieval forest pale is found on land that was set aside in the 1693 division of the forest for private ownership and exploitation.<ref name="forestplan2">Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016, p. 2.</ref> Some wooded ghylls however do contain older trees and there are a few individual old trees, especially beech, that mark former boundaries.

The two most common forms of forest woodland are oak woods on acid brown earth soils, including hazel and chestnut coppice (62% of the total woodland area), and birch woods with oak in degenerating heathlands (27%). Alder trees growing in wet and waterlogged peaty soils account for about 1% of the woodland, while birch and willow trees growing in wet areas each account for less than 1%. Beechwoods growing on acid brown earth soils account for another 3%.<ref name="forestplan9">Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016, p. 9.</ref>

The clumps of [[Pinus sylvestris|Scots pine]] that form such a distinctive, iconic hilltop feature of Ashdown Forest were first planted in 1816 by the [[Lord of the Manor]] to provide habitats for [[blackgame]]. 20th-century plantings comprise Macmillan Clump near Chelwood Gate (commemorating former British prime-minister [[Harold Macmillan]], who lived at Birch Grove, on the edge of the forest at Chelwood Gate), Kennedy Clump (commemorating a visit to the area by [[John F. Kennedy]], when he stayed with Macmillan), Millennium Clump and Friends Clump, planted in 1973 to mark the Year of the Tree.
<!-- The commonest trees in the wetter areas are alder, downy birch and the shrub alder-buckthorn. There is some sessile oak. -->

===Fauna===

====Birds====
Important populations of heath and woodland birds are found on the forest, notably [[Dartford warbler]] ''Sylvia undata'' (the forest has all-year resident populations of this, Britain's scarcest heathland bird species, which has seen a resurgence since the early 1990s) and [[European nightjar]] ''Caprimulgus europaeus''. Because of this, it has been designated as a [[Special Protection Area]] and it is a popular destination for bird-watchers.

The forest contains four main bird habitats:<ref>{{cite web|title=Birds of Ashdown Forest |url=http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/birds_of_ashdown_forest.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212075930/http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/birds_of_ashdown_forest.php |archive-date=12 February 2010 }}</ref>
* Open lowland heath, with various species of gorse and heather: [[Dartford warbler]] (''Sylvia undata''), [[European stonechat|stonechat]] (''Saxicola rubecola'') and [[meadow pipit]] (''Anthus trivialis''); in the summer, [[Eurasian skylark]] (''Alauda arvensis''), [[common linnet]] (''Carduelis cannabina''), [[yellowhammer]] (''Emberiza citrinella'') and [[common cuckoo]] (''Cuculus canorus''); and in winter, rarely, [[hen harrier]] (''Circus cyaneus'').
* Open areas of grassland, heather or gorse, with some bogs, interspersed with single trees or clumps of trees, particularly Scots pine: [[lesser redpoll]] (''Carduelis cabaret''), [[goldcrest]] (''Regulus regulus''); in the summer, [[woodlark]] (''Lullula arborea''), [[tree pipit]] (''Anthus sylvestris''), [[European nightjar|nightjar]] (''Caprimulgus europaeus''), [[common redstart]] (''Phoenicurus phoenicurus''), [[spotted flycatcher]] (''Muscicapa striata''), [[common snipe]] (''Gallinago gallinago''), [[Eurasian hobby]] (''Falco subbuteo''), [[Eurasian woodcock]] (''Scolopax rusticola''), and [[yellowhammer]]; in spring and autumn, [[northern wheatear]] (''Oenanthe oenanthe''), [[whinchat]] (''Saxicola rubetra''), [[common crossbill]] (''Loxia curvirostra''); and in winter, rarely, [[great grey shrike]] (''Lanius exubitor'').
* Scrub areas, especially on the boundary between woodland and heath/grassland: [[common reed bunting]] (''Emberiza schoeniclus''); in the summer, [[European turtle dove|turtle dove]] (''Streptopelia turtur''); in winter, [[Eurasian siskin]] ''Carduelis spinus'' and [[lesser redpoll]] (''Acanthis cabaret'').
* Mixed woodlands of oak, birch and sweet chestnut, often with Scots pine: [[stock dove]] (''Columba oenas''), [[marsh tit]] (''Parus palustris''), [[tawny owl]] (''Strix aluco''), [[Eurasian bullfinch]] (''Pyrrhula pyrrhula'') and [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]] (''Accipiter nisus''); in the summer [[common firecrest]] (''Regulus ignicapillus''); [[common buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo'') (occasional visitor).

[[File:Cordulegaster boltonii Grd3.jpg|thumb|right|Golden-ringed dragonfly]]

====Insects====
The forest supports a rich invertebrate fauna, with many heathland specialities. Half of Britain's 46 breeding species of damselflies and dragonflies (the [[Odonata]]) have been recorded, the scarcer among them being the [[Sympetrum danae|black darter]], brilliant emerald and [[small red damselfly]]. It is also an important home for the [[golden-ringed dragonfly]], which flies from mid-June to early September. Of the forest's 34 species of butterfly, the most spectacular, the [[Apatura iris|purple emperor]], can be hard to see. Another speciality, the [[silver-studded blue]], is by contrast plentiful, with the main food plants of its caterpillars being gorses and heathers.

====Deer====
[[Deer]] have been a major feature of Ashdown Forest, at least since its days as a medieval hunting forest. [[Red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus''), an integral part of [[Wealden District|Wealden culture]] since as far back as 6,000-8,000 years ago, and [[fallow deer]] (''Dama dama'')—brought by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] from mainland Europe—, present in Sussex in the [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] era and particularly favoured by the [[Normans]] for hunting, were both commonly hunted in the forest until the 17th century; around that time, the red deer had disappeared completely from the forest while fallow deer numbers had sharply declined. The depletion of the woodlands (which provided deer with cover), the deterioration of the forest pale (which allowed them to escape) and the depredations of poachers were all factors in their decline.

Fallow deer returned in the 20th century, probably escapees from the Sackville estate, [[Withyham|Buckhurst Park]]. The population roaming the forest has grown sharply in the last three decades, in-common with deer herds elsewhere in England, and they now number in their thousands. Also present are [[roe deer]] (''Capreolus'' ''capreolus''), the only native deer still roaming the forest, and two recently-introduced Asian species, the "barking deer", or [[muntjac]] (''Muntiacus muntjak''), and the [[sika deer|sika]] (''Cervus nippon'').

Many deer are involved in collisions with motor vehicles on local roads, especially as they move around the forest to feed at dawn and dusk, and many are killed. In 2009, forest rangers dealt with 244 deer casualties, compared with 266 the year before; however, this is likely to be a significantly low estimate, as the rangers cannot deal with all the accidents that occur. The forest conservators have identified a need to reduce the deer population and have begun working with neighbouring private landowners on measures to cull them.<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/Annual%20Report_2009_2010.pdf Annual Report of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2009/2010, p.4.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514182203/http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/Annual%20Report_2009_2010.pdf |date=14 May 2011 }}</ref>

==== Exmoor ponies ====
[[Exmoor pony|Exmoor ponies]] graze on the Ashdown Forest to help tackle a variety of fast-growing botanical species,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grazing |url=https://ashdownforest.org/grazing/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=The Conservators of Ashdown Forest |language=en-US}}</ref> and thus keep the [[Heath|heathland]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heathland and moorland {{!}} The Wildlife Trusts |url=https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/habitats/heathland-and-moorland |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=www.wildlifetrusts.org |language=en}}</ref> habitat balanced by preventing scrub encroachment. The Exmoor ponies are not truly domesticated; rather, they are managed by the Ashdown Forest which keeps them enclosed within large areas.