Editing Antarctic Treaty System (section)

=== Negotiation of the treaty ===
Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed.

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo.  The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of the continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1177/13540661211033889 | title=An international hierarchy of science: Conquest, cooperation, and the 1959 Antarctic Treaty System | date=2021 | last1=Yao | first1=Joanne | journal=European Journal of International Relations | volume=27 | issue=4 | pages=995–1019 | s2cid=238807417 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

The positions of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused a crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition.

The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in the framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic [[sovereignty]].

Starting from the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a [[three-quarters majority]] of consultative parties needed for the adoption of any changes.<ref>{{cite web |title=La Antártica después del año 2048 |url=https://www.elmostrador.cl/noticias/opinion/2022/01/20/la-antartica-despues-del-ano-2048/ |publisher=El Mostrador |access-date=29 March 2023 |language=es |date=20 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=La Antártica es urgente |url=https://revistamarina.cl/es/articulo/la-antartica-es-urgente |publisher=Revista Marina |access-date=29 March 2023 |language=es |date=24 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=21 January 2021 |title=Por qué es importante la Antártida para Uruguay con miras al 2048 |url=https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/por-que-es-importante-la-antartida-para-uruguay-con-miras-al-2048-2021165057 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106101456/https://www.elobservador.com.uy/nota/por-que-es-importante-la-antartida-para-uruguay-con-miras-al-2048-2021165057 |archive-date=6 January 2021 |access-date=29 March 2023 |publisher=El Observador |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=In 30 years the Antarctic Treaty becomes modifiable, and the fate of a continent could hang in the balance |url=https://theconversation.com/in-30-years-the-antarctic-treaty-becomes-modifiable-and-the-fate-of-a-continent-could-hang-in-the-balance-98654 |publisher=The Conversation |access-date=29 March 2023 |date=12 July 2018}}</ref>