Editing Alexandria (section)

==Geography==
[[File:بحيرة مريوط (Mariout lake).jpg|thumb|[[Lake Mariout]]]]
Alexandria is located in the country of Egypt, on the southern coast of the Mediterranean. It is in the Far West [[Nile Delta|Nile delta]] area.<ref>{{cite web |last=Anika |first=R. |date= |title=It is in the Nile delta area |url=http://www.mappedplanet.com/karten/klima/juli_temp-eu.png|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922182838/http://www.mappedplanet.com/karten/klima/juli_temp-eu.png|archive-date=22 September 2018|access-date=January 15, 2021 |website=maps of the world}}</ref> It is a densely populated city; its core areas belie its large administrative area. The city's geology constitutes of soil sediments, [[Oolitic aragonite sand|oolitic]] sand and clay, oolitic [[limestone]] (from the [[Middle Miocene]]), grey shelly [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]], marly dolomite, oncolitic limestone and dolomite, and as well as shelly limestone.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225345010_Effects_of_shoreline_and_bedrock_irregularities_on_the_morphodynamics_of_the_Alexandria_coast_littoral_cell_Egypt Effects of shoreline and bedrock irregularities on the morphodynamics of the Alexandria coast littoral cell, Egypt] Omran Frihy, Moheb Iskander, Abd El Moniem A. Badr. Research Gate. November 2004. Retrieved May 15, 2025.</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! rowspan=2|Region
! colspan=2|(Population)
! rowspan=2|Area<br />km<sup>2</sup>
! rowspan=2|Density<br />per km<sup>2</sup><br />(2020)
|-
! 1996
! 2020 proj*
|-
|Alexandria, 14 kisms (contiguous)||2,199,000||4,439,000||203.57||21,805
|-
|}
Notes: <small>2020 CAPMAS projection based on 2017 revised census figures, may differ significantly from 2017 census preliminary tabulations. The 14 kisms were reported simply as ''Alexandria city'' by CAPMAS in 2006 but given explosive growth definitions, likely informal, may have changed or may be set to change. Same area with 12 kisms existed in 1996. Kisms are considered 'fully urbanised'</small><ref>{{Cite web |title=AL-ISKANDARIYAH |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/egypt/admin/02__al_iskandariyah/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122114015/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/egypt/admin/02__al_iskandariyah/|archive-date=2022-01-22|access-date=2022-02-09 |website=citypopulation.de}}</ref>

===Climate===
Alexandria has a [[Semi-arid climate|hot steppe climate]] (Köppen climate classification: ''BSh''),<ref name=WMOCLINO/><!--<ref>{{cite web |url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif |title=Koeppen-Geiger.vu-wien.ac.at|access-date=30 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017125921/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif|archive-date=17 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>--> virtually [[hot desert climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BWh'').<ref name=WMOCliRef/> Like the rest of [[northern coast of Egypt|Egypt's northern coast]], the prevailing north wind, blowing across the Mediterranean, gives the city a less severe climate than the desert hinterland.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14376/Alexandria/60049/Climate |title=Alexandria |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=1 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529202420/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14376/Alexandria/60049/Climate|archive-date=29 May 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Rafah, Egypt#Climate|Rafah]] and Alexandria<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climate-charts.com/Countries/Egypt.html |title=Egypt Climate Index |publisher=Climate Charts|access-date=20 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623100510/http://www.climate-charts.com/Countries/Egypt.html|archive-date=23 June 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> are the wettest places in Egypt; the other wettest places are [[Rosetta#Climate|Rosetta]], [[Baltim#Climate|Baltim]], [[Kafr el-Dawwar#Climate|Kafr el-Dawwar]], and [[Mersa Matruh#Climate|Mersa Matruh]]. The city's climate is influenced by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot and slightly prolonged summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from {{cvt|12|to|18|C|F}} and minimum temperatures that could reach {{cvt|5|°C|F|lk=out}}.

Alexandria experiences [[Severe weather|violent storms]], rain and sometimes [[Ice pellets|sleet]] and [[hail]] during the cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city in the past though they rarely occur anymore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/deadly-flash-floods-hit-egypt-alexandria-151026085943090.html%7CDeadly |title=Deadly flash floods hit Egypt's Alexandria |work=aljazeera.com|access-date=12 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012234715/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/10/deadly-flash-floods-hit-egypt-alexandria-151026085943090.html%7CDeadly|archive-date=12 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of {{cvt|30|°C|F|lk=out}}. The average annual rainfall is around {{cvt|211|mm}} but has been as high as {{cvt|417|mm}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tutiempo.net/clima/Alexandria_Nouzha/623180.htm |title=Clima en Alexandria / Nouzha – Históricos el tiempo |publisher=Tutiempo.net|access-date=12 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615164309/http://www.tutiempo.net/clima/Alexandria_Nouzha/623180.htm|archive-date=15 June 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Port Said#Climate|Port Said]], [[al-Qusayr, Egypt#Climate|Kosseir]], [[Baltim#Climate|Baltim]], [[Damietta#Climate|Damietta]] and Alexandria have the least temperature variation in Egypt.

The highest recorded temperature was {{cvt|45|°C}} on 30 May 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was {{cvt|0|°C}} on 31 January 1994.<ref name="Voodoo Skies">{{cite web |title=Alexandria, Egypt |url=http://voodooskies.com/weather/egypt/alexandria/monthly/temperature |publisher=Voodoo Skies|access-date=3 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151724/http://voodooskies.com/weather/egypt/alexandria/monthly/temperature|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-21 |title=A wave of snow covers Alexandria, in Egypt |url=https://kawa-news.com/en/a-wave-of-snow-covers-alexandria-in-egypt/ |access-date=2021-12-22 |website=KAWA |language=en-US |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222150212/https://kawa-news.com/en/a-wave-of-snow-covers-alexandria-in-egypt/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=VIDEO: Rare snowfall turns Egypt's Alexandria into Moscow |url=https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/12/20/rare-snowfall-turns-egypt-alexandria-into-moscow |access-date=2021-12-22 |website=www.gulftoday.ae |date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222150210/https://www.gulftoday.ae/news/2021/12/20/rare-snowfall-turns-egypt-alexandria-into-moscow |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-20 |title=Photos: In rare sight, snow falls across Alexandria |url=https://egyptindependent.com/in-rare-sight-snow-falls-across-alexandria/ |access-date=2021-12-22 |website=Egypt Independent |language=en-US |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222150211/https://egyptindependent.com/in-rare-sight-snow-falls-across-alexandria/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-20 |title=In Photos: Rare 'Snowfall' in Egypt's Alexandria Marks End of 2021 {{!}} Egyptian Streets |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/12/20/in-photos-rare-snowfall-in-egypts-alexandria-marks-end-of-2021/ |access-date=2021-12-22 |language=en-US |archive-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222151712/https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/12/20/in-photos-rare-snowfall-in-egypts-alexandria-marks-end-of-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width = auto
|location = Alexandria ([[El Nouzha Airport]]) 1991–2020, extremes 1957–present
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 29.6
| Feb record high C = 33.0
| Mar record high C = 40.0
| Apr record high C = 40.8
| May record high C = 45.0
| Jun record high C = 43.9
| Jul record high C = 40.7
| Aug record high C = 39.8
| Sep record high C = 39.0
| Oct record high C = 38.3
| Nov record high C = 35.7
| Dec record high C = 31.0
|Jan high C = 18.4
|Feb high C = 19.0
|Mar high C = 21.1
|Apr high C = 24.1
|May high C = 26.9
|Jun high C = 29.1
|Jul high C = 30.5
|Aug high C = 31.0
|Sep high C = 30.2
|Oct high C = 27.8
|Nov high C = 24.0
|Dec high C = 20.1
|year high C = 25.2
|Jan mean C = 14.0
|Feb mean C = 14.4
|Mar mean C = 16.4
|Apr mean C = 19.0
|May mean C = 22.2
|Jun mean C = 25.2
|Jul mean C = 27.1
|Aug mean C = 27.8
|Sep mean C = 26.4
|Oct mean C = 23.6
|Nov mean C = 19.6
|Dec mean C = 15.6
|year mean C = 20.9
|Jan low C = 9.5
|Feb low C = 9.7
|Mar low C = 11.8
|Apr low C = 14.3
|May low C = 17.8
|Jun low C = 21.7
|Jul low C = 23.9
|Aug low C = 24.4
|Sep low C = 22.5
|Oct low C = 19.3
|Nov low C = 15.1
|Dec low C = 11.1
|year low C = 16.8
| Jan record low C  = 0.0
| Feb record low C  = 1.2
| Mar record low C  = 2.3
| Apr record low C  = 3.6
| May record low C  = 8.5
| Jun record low C  = 11.6
| Jul record low C  = 17.0
| Aug record low C  = 17.8
| Sep record low C  = 14.0
| Oct record low C  = 10.7
| Nov record low C  = 4.6
| Dec record low C  = 1.2
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 61.4
|Feb precipitation mm = 35.2
|Mar precipitation mm = 12.8
|Apr precipitation mm = 2.6
|May precipitation mm = 1.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 0.0
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 0.0
|Sep precipitation mm = 0.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 8.3
|Nov precipitation mm = 36.8
|Dec precipitation mm = 52.7
|year precipitation mm = 211.6
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 8.2
|Feb precipitation days = 5.4
|Mar precipitation days = 2.8
|Apr precipitation days = 1.2
|May precipitation days = 1.4
|Jun precipitation days = 0.5
|Jul precipitation days = 0.4
|Aug precipitation days = 0.4
|Sep precipitation days = 0.2
|Oct precipitation days = 1.2
|Nov precipitation days = 3.5
|Dec precipitation days = 5.9
|year precipitation days = 31.1
|Jan sun = 192.0
|Feb sun = 210.3
|Mar sun = 247.0
|Apr sun = 273.9
|May sun = 316.8
|Jun sun = 353.2
|Jul sun = 362.2
|Aug sun = 345.3
|Sep sun = 296.7
|Oct sun = 281.7
|Nov sun = 224.1
|Dec sun = 195.7
|year sun = 3298.9
|Jan humidity = 69
|Feb humidity = 67
|Mar humidity = 67
|Apr humidity = 65
|May humidity = 66
|Jun humidity = 68
|Jul humidity = 71
|Aug humidity = 71
|Sep humidity = 67
|Oct humidity = 68
|Nov humidity = 68
|Dec humidity = 68
|year humidity = 67.9
| Jan dew point C = 7.8
| Feb dew point C = 7.8
| Mar dew point C = 9.1
| Apr dew point C = 11.3
| May dew point C = 14.4
| Jun dew point C = 17.9
| Jul dew point C = 20.1
| Aug dew point C = 20.4
| Sep dew point C = 18.6
| Oct dew point C = 15.9
| Nov dew point C = 12.6
| Dec dew point C = 9.0
| year dew point C = 13.7
|source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity, dew point, sun 1961–1990)<ref name=WMOCLINO>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231001052433/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Egypt/CSV/AlexandriaNouzha_62318.csv
| archive-date = 1 October 2023
| url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Egypt/CSV/AlexandriaNouzha_62318.csv
| title = Alexandria Nouzha Normals 1991–2020
| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020)
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 1 October 2023}}</ref><ref name=WMOCliRef>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231001052733/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-I/UB/62318.TXT
| archive-date = 1 October 2023
| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961-1990/RA-I/UB/62318.TXT
| title = Alexandria/Nouzha
| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Reference Normals (1961–1990)
| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
| access-date = 1 October 2023}}</ref>
| source 2 = Meteo Climat (records)<ref name=MetCli>{{cite web
| url = http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/station-2119.php
| title = Station Alexandrie
| publisher = Meteo Climat
| access-date = 1 October 2023
| language = fr}}</ref>
|date = July 2014
}}
{|class="wikitable" align="center"
|+Alexandria mean sea temperature<ref name="Weather2Travel">{{cite web |url=http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/egypt/alexandria.php |title=Alexandria Climate and Weather Averages, Egypt |publisher=Weather2Travel|access-date=20 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105193047/http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/egypt/alexandria.php|archive-date=5 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
|-
|{{cvt|18|°C}}
|{{cvt|17|°C}}
|{{cvt|17|°C}}
|{{cvt|18|°C}}
|{{cvt|20|°C}}
|{{cvt|23|°C}}
|{{cvt|25|°C}}
|{{cvt|26|°C}}
|{{cvt|26|°C}}
|{{cvt|25|°C}}
|{{cvt|22|°C}}
|{{cvt|20|°C}}
|}

==== Climate change ====
A 2019 paper published in [[PLOS One]] estimated that under [[Representative Concentration Pathway#4.5|Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5]], a "moderate" scenario of [[climate change]] where global warming reaches ~{{convert|2.5-3|C-change|F-change}} by 2100, the climate of Alexandria in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of [[Gaza City]]. The annual temperature would increase by {{convert|2.8|C-change|F-change}}, and the temperature of the warmest and the coldest month by {{convert|2.9|C-change|F-change}} and {{convert|3.1|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bastin |first1=Jean-Francois |last2=Clark |first2=Emily |last3=Elliott |first3=Thomas |last4=Hart |first4=Simon |last5=van den Hoogen |first5=Johan |last6=Hordijk |first6=Iris |last7=Ma |first7=Haozhi |last8=Majumder |first8=Sabiha |last9=Manoli |first9=Gabriele |last10=Maschler |first10=Julia |last11=Mo |first11=Lidong |last12=Routh |first12=Devin |last13=Yu |first13=Kailiang |last14=Zohner |first14=Constantin M. |last15=Thomas W. |first15=Crowther |title=Understanding climate change from a global analysis of city analogues |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 July 2019 |volume=14 |issue=7 |at=S2 Table. Summary statistics of the global analysis of city analogues. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0217592 |pmid=31291249 |pmc=6619606 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1417592B |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://crowtherlab.pageflow.io/cities-of-the-future-visualizing-climate-change-to-inspire-action |title=Cities of the future: visualizing climate change to inspire action |at=Current vs. future cities |access-date=8 January 2023 |archive-date=8 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230108082440/https://crowtherlab.pageflow.io/cities-of-the-future-visualizing-climate-change-to-inspire-action |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to [[Climate Action Tracker]], the current warming trajectory appears consistent with {{convert|2.7|C-change|F-change}}, which closely matches RCP 4.5.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/global/cat-thermometer/ |title=The CAT Thermometer |access-date=8 January 2023}}</ref>

Due to its location on a Nile river delta, Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities to [[sea level rise]] in the entire world. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of people in its low-lying areas may already have to be relocated before 2030.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/aug/29/alexandria-little-venice-egypt-climate-change-frontline|title=Houses claimed by the canal: life on Egypt's climate change frontline| last=Michaelson| first=Ruth|date=25 August 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=30 August 2018}}</ref> The 2022 [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] estimates that by 2050, Alexandria and 11 other major African cities ([[Abidjan]], [[Algiers]], [[Cape Town]], [[Casablanca]], [[Dakar]], [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Durban]], [[Lagos]], [[Lomé]], [[Luanda]] and [[Maputo]]) would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion for the "moderate" climate change scenario [[Representative Concentration Pathway|RCP 4.5]] and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5, while RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from [[marine ice sheet instability]] at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages. Additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. In every single estimate, Alexandria alone bears around half of these costs.<ref>Trisos, C.H., I.O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N.P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter09.pdf Chapter 9: Africa]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke,V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US, pp. 2043–2121</ref> Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf |title=Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=August 2021 |publisher=IPCC |page=TS14 |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> Recent studies published in [[Earth's Future]] by the [[American Geophysical Union]] indicate that rising sea levels are causing increases in coastal aquifer levels, reaching building foundations and accelerating their corrosion and potential collapse. The study predicts that in 2025, more than 7000 buildings in Alexandria will be at risk of collapse due to these groundwater processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fouad |first1=Sara S. |last2=Heggy |first2=Essam |last3=Amrouni |first3=Oula |last4=Hzami |first4=Abderraouf |last5=Nijhuis |first5=Steffen |last6=Mohamed |first6=Nesma |last7=Saleh |first7=Ibrahim H. |last8=Jomaa |first8=Seifeddine |last9=Elsheshtawy |first9=Yasser |last10=Weilacher |first10=Udo |title=Soaring Building Collapses in Southern Mediterranean Coasts: Hydroclimatic Drivers & Adaptive Landscape Mitigations |journal=Earth's Future |date=12 February 2025 |volume=13 |issue=2 |doi=10.1029/2024EF004883 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2025EaFut..1304883F }}</ref>