Editing Alaric I (section)

==In search of Western Roman recognition; invading Italy==
=== First invasion of Italy ({{circa}} 401–403) ===
{{Main|Gothic War (401-403)}}
According to historian [[Michael Kulikowski]], sometime in the spring of 402 Alaric decided to invade Italy, but no sources from antiquity indicate to what purpose.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=122}}{{efn|Some lines from the Roman poet [[Claudian]] inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a [[sacred grove]], "Away with delay, Alaric; boldly cross the Italian Alps this year and thou shalt reach the city."{{sfn|Claudian|1922|p=165 [XXVI.545]}}}} Burns suggests that Alaric was probably desperate for provisions.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=190}} Using Claudian as his source, historian [[Guy Halsall]] reports that Alaric's attack actually began in late 401, but since Stilicho was in ''Raetia'' "dealing with frontier issues" the two did not first confront one another in Italy until 402.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=201}} Alaric's entry into Italy followed the route identified in the poetry of Claudian, as he crossed the peninsula's Alpine frontier near the city of [[Aquileia]].{{sfn|Boin|2020|p=139}} For a period of six to nine months, there were reports of Gothic attacks along the northern Italian roads, where Alaric was spotted by Roman townspeople.{{sfn|Boin|2020|p=140}} Along the route on ''[[Via Postumia]]'', Alaric first encountered Stilicho.{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp=140–141}}

Two battles were fought. The first was at [[Battle of Pollentia|Pollentia]] on Easter Sunday, where Stilicho (according to Claudian) achieved an impressive victory, taking Alaric's wife and children prisoner, and more significantly, seizing much of the treasure that Alaric had amassed over the previous five years' worth of plundering.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=135}}{{efn|Stilicho's enemies later reproached him for not having finished off the enemy by slaying them in their entirety.{{sfn|Bunson|1995|p=12}}}} Pursuing the retreating forces of Alaric, Stilicho offered to return the prisoners but was refused. The second battle was at [[Battle of Verona (402)|Verona]],{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=135}} where Alaric was defeated for a second time. Stilicho once again offered Alaric a truce and allowed him to withdraw from Italy. Kulikowski explains this confusing, if not outright conciliatory behavior by stating, "given Stilicho's cold war with Constantinople, it would have been foolish to destroy as biddable and violent a potential weapon as Alaric might well prove to be".{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=135}} Halsall's observations are similar, as he contends that the Roman general's "decision to permit Alaric's withdrawal into ''Pannonia'' makes sense if we see Alaric's force entering Stilicho's service, and Stilicho's victory being less total than Claudian would have us believe".{{sfn|Halsall|2007|pp=201–202}} Perhaps more revealing is a report from the Greek historian [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]]—writing a half a century later—that indicates an agreement was concluded between Stilicho and Alaric in 405, which suggests Alaric being in "western service at that point", likely stemming from arrangements made back in 402.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=202}}{{efn|While Alaric had not penetrated into the city, his invasion of Italy still produced important results. It caused the imperial residence to be transferred from [[Milan]] to [[Ravenna]], and necessitated the withdrawal of [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Legio XX ''Valeria Victrix'']] from Britain.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p=471}}}} Between 404 and 405, Alaric remained in one of the four ''Pannonian'' provinces, from where he could "play East off against West while potentially threatening both".{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=135}}

Historian A.D. Lee observes, "Alaric's return to the north-west Balkans brought only temporary respite to Italy, for in 405 another substantial body of Goths and other barbarians, this time from outside the empire, crossed the middle Danube and advanced into northern Italy, where they plundered the countryside and besieged cities and towns" under their leader [[Radagaisus]].{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=112}} Although the imperial government was struggling to muster enough troops to contain these barbarian invasions, Stilicho managed to stifle the threat posed by the tribes under Radagaisus, when the latter split his forces into three separate groups. Stilicho cornered Radagaisus near Florence and starved the invaders into submission.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=112}}{{efn|Historian [[Walter Goffart]] points out that while many sources identify Radagaisus as an Ostrogoth, he and his forces were likely composed of "odds and ends of peoples who crossed into the empire" and that their documented numbers have been inflated.{{sfn|Goffart|2006|p=78}}}} Meanwhile, Alaric—bestowed with codicils of ''magister militum'' by Stilicho and now supplied by the West—awaited for one side or the other to incite him to action as Stilicho faced further difficulties from more barbarians.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp=170–171}}

===Second invasion of Italy, agreement with Western Roman regime===
{{Further|Crossing of the Rhine#Stilicho's inaction}}
Sometime in 406 and into 407, more large groups of barbarians, consisting primarily of [[Vandals]], [[Sueves]] and [[Alans]], crossed the Rhine into Gaul while about the same time a rebellion occurred in Britain. Under a common soldier named [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine]] it spread to Gaul.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=171}} Burdened by so many enemies, Stilicho's position was strained. During this crisis in 407, Alaric again marched on Italy, taking a position in Noricum (modern Austria), where he demanded a sum of 4,000 pounds of gold to buy off another full-scale invasion.{{sfn|Lee|2013|pp=112–113}}{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=172}} The Roman Senate loathed the idea of supporting Alaric; [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] observed that one senator famously declaimed ''Non est ista pax, sed pactio servitutis'' ("This is not peace, but a pact of servitude").{{efn|See: Zosimus, ''Nova Historia'', book 5. http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm}} Stilicho paid Alaric the 4,000 pounds of gold nevertheless.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=215}} This agreement, sensible in view of the military situation, fatally weakened Stilicho's standing at Honorius's court.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=172}} Twice Stilicho had allowed Alaric to escape his grasp, and Radagaisus had advanced all the way to the outskirts of [[Florence]].{{sfn|Boin|2020|p=148}}

===Renewed hostilities after Western Roman coup===
In the East, Arcadius died on 1 May 408 and was replaced by his son [[Theodosius II]]; Stilicho seems to have planned to march to Constantinople, and to install there a regime loyal to himself.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=216}} He may also have intended to give Alaric a senior official position and send him against the rebels in Gaul. Before Stilicho could do so, while he was away at [[Ticinum]] at the head of a small detachment, a bloody coup against his supporters took place at Honorius's court. It was led by Honorius's minister, [[Olympius]].{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=218}} Stilicho's small escort of Goths and Huns was commanded by a Goth, [[Sarus the Goth|Sarus]], whose Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep, and then withdrew towards the cities in which their own families were billeted. Stilicho ordered that Sarus's Goths should not be admitted, but, now without an army, he was forced to flee for sanctuary. Agents of Olympius promised Stilicho his life, but instead betrayed and killed him.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=219}}{{efn|Despite skillful maneuvering against the Goths, historian [[J. M. Wallace-Hadrill]] explains that Stilicho could not endear himself to the Romans, even though he had rescued Rome on two occasions before it fell to Alaric. The reasons he remained "the scapegoat of Roman writers" were many; including that they saw Stilicho as "the man who "sold the pass." Wallace-Hadrill adds, "Partly, it seems, because he (Stilicho) was ready to compromise with the Goths in an attempt to wrest the much-coveted eastern parts of Illyricum from the control of Constantinople. Partly, too, because his concentration on Italian and Balkan affairs left Gaul open to invasion. Partly because his defense policy proved costly to the senatorial class. But most of all, perhaps, because to the Romans, he signified the arrival of Arianism," a belief system that Western Catholics found sacrilegious.{{sfn|Wallace-Hadrill|2004|pp=22–23}}}}

Alaric was again declared an enemy of the emperor. Olympius's men then massacred the families of the federate troops (as presumed supporters of Stilicho, although they had probably rebelled against him), and the troops defected ''en masse'' to Alaric.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp=224–225}} Many thousands of barbarian auxiliaries, along with their wives and children, joined Alaric in Noricum.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|pp=172–173}} The conspirators seem to have let their main army disintegrate and had no policy except hunting down supporters of Stilicho.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp=228, 236}} Italy was left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter.{{sfn|Macgeorge|2002|p=171}}

As a declared 'enemy of the emperor', Alaric was denied the legitimacy that he needed to collect taxes and hold cities without large garrisons, which he could not afford to detach. He again offered to move his men, this time to [[Pannonia]], in exchange for a modest sum of money and the modest title of [[Comes]], but he was refused because Olympius's regime regarded him as a supporter of Stilicho.{{sfn|Burns|1994|pp=226–227}}

===First siege of Rome, agreed ransom===
When Alaric was rebuffed, he led his force of around 30,000 men—many newly enlisted and understandably motivated—on a march toward Rome to avenge their murdered families.{{sfn|Heather|2005|p=224}} He moved across the Julian Alps into Italy, probably using the route and supplies arranged for him by Stilicho,{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=227}} bypassing the imperial court in [[Ravenna]] which was protected by widespread marshland and had a port, and in September 408 he menaced the city of Rome, imposing a strict blockade. No blood was shed this time; Alaric relied on hunger as his most powerful weapon. When the ambassadors of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], entreating for peace, tried to intimidate him with hints of what the despairing citizens might accomplish, he laughed and gave his celebrated answer: "The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!" After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of pepper.{{sfn|Norwich|1988|p=134}} Alaric also recruited some 40,000 freed [[Goths|Gothic]] slaves. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p=471}} 
[[File:Sack of Rome by the Visigoths on 24 August 410 by JN Sylvestre 1890.jpg|thumb|[[Sack of Rome (410)|The Sack of Rome]] by the Visigoths on 24 August 410 by [[Joseph-Noël Sylvestre|J.-N. Sylvestre]] (1890)]]

===Failed agreement with the Western Romans, Alaric sets up his own emperor===
After having provisionally agreed to the terms offered by Alaric for lifting the blockade, Honorius recanted; historian A.D. Lee highlights that one of the points of contention for the emperor was Alaric's expectation of being named head of the Roman Army, a post Honorius was not prepared to grant to Alaric.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=113}} When this title was not bestowed onto Alaric, he proceeded to not only "besiege Rome again in late 409, but also to proclaim a leading senator, [[Priscus Attalus]], as a rival emperor, from whom Alaric then received the appointment" he desired.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=113}} Meanwhile, Alaric's newly appointed "emperor" Attalus, who seems not to have understood the limits of his power or his dependence on Alaric, failed to take Alaric's advice and lost the grain supply in Africa to a pro-Honorian ''comes Africae'', Heraclian.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=175}} Then, sometime in 409, Attalus—accompanied by Alaric—marched on Ravenna and after receiving unprecedented terms and concessions from the legitimate emperor Honorius, refused him and instead demanded that Honorius be deposed and exiled.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=175}} Fearing for his safety, Honorius made preparations to flee to Ravenna when ships carrying 4,000 troops arrived from Constantinople, restoring his resolve.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=113}} Now that Honorius no longer felt the need to negotiate, Alaric (regretting his choice of puppet emperor) deposed Attalus, perhaps to re-open negotiations with Ravenna.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=176}}

===Sack of Rome===
{{main|Sack of Rome (410)}}
Negotiations with Honorius might have succeeded had it not been for another intervention by [[Sarus (Goth)|Sarus]], of the [[Amal dynasty|Amal family]], and therefore a hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. He attacked Alaric's men.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|p=471}} Why Sarus, who had been in imperial service for years under Stilicho, acted at this moment remains a mystery, but Alaric interpreted this attack as directed by Ravenna and as bad faith from Honorius. No longer would negotiations suffice for Alaric, as his patience had reached its end, which led him to march on Rome for a third and final time.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=177}}

On 24 August 410, Alaric and his forces began the sack of Rome, an assault that lasted three days.{{sfn|James|2014|p=57}} After hearing reports that Alaric had entered the city—possibly aided by Gothic slaves inside—there were reports that Emperor Honorius (safe in Ravenna) broke into "wailing and lamentation" but quickly calmed once "it was explained to him that it was the city of Rome that had met its end and not 'Roma'," his pet fowl.{{sfn|James|2014|p=57}} Writing from Bethlehem, St. Jerome (Letter 127.12, to the lady ''Principia''){{efn|See the New Advent source here: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001127.htm}} lamented: "A dreadful rumour reached us from the West. We heard that Rome was besieged, that the citizens were buying their safety with gold … The city which had taken the whole world was itself taken; nay, it fell by famine before it fell to the sword."{{sfn|James|2014|p=57}} Nonetheless, Christian writers also cited how Alaric ordered that anyone who took shelter in a Church was to be spared.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=216}}{{efn|Evidently the piety and restraint of the barbarian soldiers under Alaric, despite their adherence to Arianism, was less pagan in the eyes of Christian writers than the practices of the Romans themselves.{{sfn|James|2014|p=57}}}} When liturgical vessels were taken from the basilica of St. Peter and Alaric heard of this, he ordered them returned and had them ceremoniously restored in the church.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}} If the account from the historian [[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]] can be seen as accurate, there was even a celebratory recognition of Christian unity by way of a procession through the streets where Romans and barbarians alike "raised a hymn to God in public"; historian [[Edward James (historian)|Edward James]] concludes that such stories are likely more political rhetoric of the "noble" barbarians than a reflection of historical reality.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}}

According to historian [[Patrick Geary]], Roman booty was not the focus of Alaric's sack of Rome; he came for needed food supplies.{{sfn|Geary|1988|p=70}}{{efn|Geary also contends that Alaric had the long-term intention to lead his people to North Africa, much like the later Vandals would do.{{sfn|Geary|1988|p=70}}}} Historian Stephen Mitchell asserts that Alaric's followers seemed incapable of feeding themselves and relied on provisions "supplied by the Roman authorities."{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=98}} Whatever Alaric's intentions were cannot be known entirely, but Kulikowski certainly sees the issue of available treasure in a different light, writing that "For three days, Alaric's Goths sacked the city, stripping it of the wealth of centuries."{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=177}} The barbarian invaders were not gentle in their treatment of property as substantial damage was still evident into the sixth century.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}} Certainly the Roman world was shaken by the fall of the Eternal City to barbarian invaders, but as Guy Halsall emphasizes, "Rome's fall had less striking political effects. Alaric, unable to treat with Honorius, remained in the political cold."{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=216}} Kulikowski sees the situation similarly, commenting:

<blockquote>But for Alaric the sack of Rome was an admission of defeat, a catastrophic failure. Everything he had hoped for, had fought for over the course of a decade and a half, went up in flames with the capital of the ancient world. Imperial office, a legitimate place for himself and his followers inside the empire, these were now forever out of reach. He might seize what he wanted, as he had seized Rome, but he would never be given it by right. The sack of Rome solved nothing and when the looting was over Alaric's men still had nowhere to live and fewer future prospects than ever before.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2006|p=177}}</blockquote>

Still, the importance of Alaric cannot be "overestimated" according to Halsall, since he had desired and obtained a Roman command even though he was a barbarian; his real misfortune was being caught between the rivalry of the Eastern and Western empires and their court intrigue.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=217}} According to historian [[Peter Brown (historian)|Peter Brown]], when one compares Alaric with other barbarians, "he was almost an Elder Statesman."{{sfn|Brown|2000|p=286}} Nonetheless, Alaric's respect for Roman institutions as a former servant to its highest office did not stay his hand in violently sacking the city that had for centuries exemplified Roman glory, leaving behind physical destruction and social disruption, while Alaric took clerics and even the emperor's sister, [[Galla Placidia]], with him when he left the city.{{sfn|James|2014|p=58}} Many other Italian communities beyond the city of Rome itself fell victim to the forces under Alaric, as Procopius (''Wars'' 3.2.11–13) writing in the sixth century later relates:

<blockquote>For they destroyed all the cities which they captured, especially those south of the Ionian Gulf, so completely that nothing has been left to my time to know them by, unless, indeed, it might be one tower or gate or some such thing which chanced to remain. And they killed all the people, as many as came in their way, both old and young alike, sparing neither women nor children. Wherefore even up to the present time Italy is sparsely populated.{{sfn|James|2014|p=59}}</blockquote>

Whether Alaric's forces wrought the level of destruction described by Procopius or not cannot be known, but evidence speaks to a significant population decrease, as the number of people on the [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|food dole]] dropped from 800,000 in 408 to 500,000 by 419.{{sfn|Lançon|2001|pp=14, 119}} Rome's fall to the barbarians was as much a psychological blow to the empire as anything else, since some Romans citizens saw the collapse as resulting from the conversion to Christianity, while Christian theologians like St.Augustine (writing ''City of God'') responded in turn.{{sfn|Lee|2013|p=114}} Lamenting Rome's capture, famed Christian theologian [[Jerome]], wrote how "day and night" he could not stop thinking of everyone's safety, and moreover, how Alaric had extinguished "the bright light of all the world."{{sfn|Boin|2020|pp=167–168}} Some contemporary Christian observers even saw Alaric—a professed Christian—as God's wrath upon a still pagan Rome.{{sfn|Burns|1994|p=233}}

===Move to southern Italy, death from disease===
[[Image:Death of Alaric.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An engraving of Alaric's burial in the bed of the [[Busento River]] (1895)]]
Not only had Rome's sack been a significant blow to the Roman people's morale, they had also endured two years' worth of trauma brought about by fear, hunger (due to blockades), and illness.{{sfn|Lançon|2001|p=39}} However, the Goths were not long in the city of Rome, as only three days after the sack, Alaric marched his men south to Campania, from where he intended to sail to Sicily—probably to obtain grain and other supplies—when a storm destroyed his fleet.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=101}} During the early months of 411, while on his northward return journey through Italy, Alaric took ill and died at Consentia in Bruttium.{{sfn|Mitchell|2007|p=101}} His cause of death was likely fever,{{sfn|Durschmied|2002|p=401}}{{efn|Scholars have often wondered about the cause of King Alaric's death. As recent as 2016, Francesco Galassi and his colleagues pored over all the historical, medical and epidemiological sources they could find about Alaric's death, and concluded that the underlying cause was malaria. For further information, see: "The sudden death of Alaric I (c. 370–410 AD), the vanquisher of Rome: A tale of malaria and lacking immunity." Francesco M. Galassi, Raffaella Bianucci, Giacomo Gorini, Giacomo M. Paganottie, Michael E. Habicht, Frank J. Rühli. ''European Journal of Internal Medicine'' June 2016 Volume 31, pp. 84–87. https://www.ejinme.com/article/S0953-6205(16)00067-4/abstract}} and his body was, according to legend, buried under the riverbed of the [[Busento]] in accordance with the pagan practices of the Visigothic people. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug, wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred. When the work was finished, the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labour had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret.{{sfn|Hodgkin|1911|pp=471–472}}{{efn|A similar story is told of the [[Decebalus Treasure]], [[buried treasure|buried]] under a river in 106 AD. These burials repeat [[Scythian]] models from the Lower Danube and the Black Sea. See the following Spanish-language source: [http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/5926/alarico-i Alarico I] {{in lang|es}}, ''[[Diccionario biográfico español]]'', Luis Agustín García Moreno, [[Real Academia de la Historia]].}}