Editing Ahalya (section)

== Curse and redemption ==
While most versions agree that Gautama curses Ahalya after discovering the affair, the curse varies from text to text. However, almost all versions describe Rama as the agent of her liberation and redemption.

=== Punishments of Ahalya and Indra ===
[[File:Gautama cursed his wife Ahalya for allowing Indra into her hermitage.jpg|thumb|upright|Gautama (left) discovers Indra disguised as Gautama fleeing, as Ahalya watches.]]
The ''Bala Kanda'' mentions that Gautama spots Indra, who is still in disguise, and curses him to lose his [[testicles]]. Gautama then curses Ahalya to remain invisible to all beings for thousands of years, fast by subsisting only on air, suffer and sleep in ashes and be tormented by guilt. Nevertheless, he assures her that her sin will be expiated once she extends her hospitality to Rama, who will visit the ashram. Thereafter, Gautama abandons the ashram and goes to the [[Himalayas]] to practise asceticism. The [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] prince Rama, his brother [[Lakshmana]] and their [[guru]], the sage [[Vishvamitra]] pass Gautama's desolate ashram while travelling to King [[Janaka]]'s court in Mithila. As they near the ashram, Vishvamitra recounts the tale of Ahalya's curse and instructs Rama to save Ahalya. Although Ahalya is cursed, Vishvamitra nevertheless describes her as goddess-like and illustrious,{{sfn|Goldman|1990|pp=217–218}} repeatedly calling her ''mahabhaga'', a [[Sanskrit compounds|Sanskrit compound]] (''maha'' and ''bhaga'') translated as "most illustrious and highly distinguished";{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{r|Wilson p650}}{{r|Monier-Williams p798}}{{sfn|Macdonell|2008|p=221}} this interpretation contrasts with that of [[Rambhadracharya]], who believes that the word ''mahabhaga'', in the context of Ahalya's story, means "extremely unfortunate" (''maha'' and ''abhaga'').{{efn|name=maha and abhaga}} Following Vishvamitra, the princes enter the ashram to see Ahalya, who, up till then, had been hidden from the universe. Ahalya is described as glowing from the intensity of her ascetic devotion, but hidden from the world like the Sun obscured by dark clouds, the light of a full moon hidden by mist or a blazing flame masked by smoke. Under the direction of his guru, Rama considers Ahalya pure and unblemished and, accompanied by Lakshamana, gives her [[Pranāma|obeisance by touching her by his feet]], an act that restores her social status. She greets them, recalling Gautama's words that Rama would be her redeemer. Ahalya extends her warmest reception, making a "welcome offering" of forest fruits and washing their feet, an act of respect according to the rites of that era. The gods and other celestial beings shower Rama and Ahalya with flowers and bow to Ahalya, who has been purified through her penance. Gautama then returns to his ashram and accepts her.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{sfn|Goldman|1990|pp=215–218}}

[[File:Stone sculpt 2 NMND-10.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=A brown stone sculpture. Rama sits on a stone under a tree (right, largest figure) with a bow in left hand and the other hand on the head of Ahaya(centre bottom), who is seated on the ground with flowers in her hand. Behind her stands Lakshamana. The leftmost figure is of Vishvamitra sitting on a stone.|Ahalya offering fruits and flowers to Rama, her saviour, in a 5th-century CE stone sculpture from [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogah]], currently in the [[National Museum, New Delhi]]|left]]

In one instance in the ''Mahabharata'', Indra is said to have been cursed by having his beard turned to gold as he seduces Ahalya, while a curse by Kaushika (sometimes interpreted as synonymous to Gautama) is cited as the reason for his castration.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{sfn|Ganguli Shanti Parva|1883–1896|loc=[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12c042.htm chap. CCCXLIII]}} In the ''Uttara Kanda'', Indra is cursed to lose his throne and endure captivity and bear half the sin of every rape ever committed,{{efn|name=uttarakanda}} while the innocent Ahalya is cursed to lose her status as the most beautiful woman, as it had prompted Indra's seduction. Ahalya claims her innocence (this part is not found in all manuscripts), but Gautama agrees to accept her only when she is sanctified by offering Rama hospitality.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|p=45}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=89–90, 92, 321–322}}

Ahalya's defence plea is also found in some of the ''Purana''s. In the ''Brahma Purana'', Ahalya is cursed to become a dried up stream, but pleads her innocence and produces servants, who were also deceived by Indra's disguise, as witnesses. Gautama reduces the curse on his "faithful wife" and she is redeemed when she joins the Gautami (Godavari) river as a stream. Indra is cursed to carry his shame in the form of a thousand [[vulva]]e on his body, but the vulvae turn into eyes as he bathes in the Gautami. The ''Brahma Purana'' is a rare exception where Rama is dropped from the narrative. Instead, the greatness of the Gautami river is illustrated.{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|pp=51–53}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=95–96, 321–322}} The ''Padma Purana'' tells that as Indra attempts to flee in the form of a cat, Gautama curses him to lose his genitals and to bear a thousand vulvae on his body. The beguiled Ahalya declares herself blameless, but Gautama considers her impure and curses her to be reduced to a mere skeleton of skin and bones. He decrees that she will regain her beautiful form when Rama laughs at seeing her so afflicted, dried out (a reminder of the dried stream motif), without a body (the ''Ramayana'' curse) and lying on the path (an attribute often used to describe a stone). When Rama comes, he proclaims her innocence and Indra's guilt, whereupon Ahalya returns to her heavenly abode and dwells with Gautama.{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|pp=54–55}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=92–93, 321–322}}

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=== Stone motifs ===

In the popular retelling of the legend in later works, as well as in theatre and electronic media, Ahalya is turned to stone by Gautama's curse and returns to her human form only after being brushed by Rama's foot.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{sfn|Devika|29 October 2006|p=52}} Pradip Bhattacharya, author of ''Panch-Kanya: The Five Virgins of Indian Epics'', argues that this version of the tale is the result of a "male backlash" and patriarchal myth-making that condemns her as a non-entity devoid of emotions, self-respect and social status.{{sfn|Bhattacharya|March–April 2004|pp=4–7}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|November–December 2004|pp=32–33}}

[[File:Ahalya rama.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Ahalya (right bottom, seated in a red sari and rising from a stone, bows with folded hands to Rama (left) who is seated with Vishvamitra (centre) on a stone under a tree, in front of her. Lakshamana stands on the right.|Ahalya emerges from her stone form, after being touched by Rama's foot. The motif of Ahalya being turned into stone first gets scriptural authority in the ''Purana''s. (Early-20th-century print by Ravi Varma Press)]]

According to the ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana'', Gautama curses Indra to bear a thousand vulvae, which will turn to eyes when he worships the sun-god [[Surya]]. Ahalya is turned to stone for sixty thousand years and destined to be redeemed only by Rama's touch. Ahalya accepts the verdict without debate. In another version in the same ''Purana'', Gautama catches Indra fleeing as a cat and curses him with castration. Ahalya's plea of innocence is acknowledged by Gautama, who declares that her mind is pure and she has kept the "vow of chastity and fidelity", but another man's seed has defiled her body. Gautama orders her to go to the forest and become a stone until rescued by the touch of Rama's feet.{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|pp=56–58}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=94, 321–322}} In Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka's Telugu rendition, when Indra reluctantly leaves, Gautama arrives and curses Ahalya to become a stone, to be later purified by Rama's feet. After she is freed from the curse, Gautama and Ahalya are reconciled and they spend their days in bed, exploring sexual techniques.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=101–103, 321–322}}

The ''Skanda Purana'' tells that when Gautama arrives, Ahalya explains the whole tale truthfully, but is cursed by Gautama to become a stone, because he believes that she acted as a rolling stone, unable to recognise the difference between Indra's and Gautama's gestures and movements. The touch of Rama's feet is prophesied to be her saviour. The terrified Indra escapes as a cat and is cursed with castration.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=96–97, 321–322}} Ahalya's truthfulness is also observed in the ''Kathasaritsagara''. When Gautama arrives after the act, Indra tries to flee as a cat but is cursed to bear the marks of a thousand vulvae. When asked by Gautama about her visitor, Ahalya wittily answers that it was a ''majjara'', a word meaning either "cat" or, when split as ''ma-jara'', "my lover". Gautama laughs and curses her to be turned into stone, but decrees that she will be released by Rama since she at least spoke the truth.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=17}}{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|pp=58–59}}

[[File:Rama realesaing Ahalya.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Rama and Lakshmana with bows in their hands stand on the left. Underneath is a Bengali text. In the lower right is a large stone, though which Ahalya's torso rises with her hands folded. Vishwamitra stands behind her.|Rama liberates Ahalya from her stone form in this 19th-century [[Kalighat painting]].]]
The petrification motif also appears in non-scriptural works. The ''[[Raghuvamsa]]'' of [[Kalidasa]] (generally dated 4th century CE) notes that the wife of Gautama (unnamed here) momentarily becomes the wife of Indra. Without explicitly mentioning the curse, it relates further that she regains her beautiful form and casts away her stony appearance, owing to the grace provided by the dust of Rama's feet, which redeems her.{{sfn|Kālidāsa|Devadhar|1997|pp=203–204, 606}} Gautam Patel, author of many works about Kalidasa, credits him as the first person to introduce the petrification motif.{{sfn|Patel|1994|pp=105–106}} In the ''Ramavataram'' too, Rama does not have to touch Ahalya with his foot; the dust from his feet is enough to bring her back to life. As in other versions of the tale, the repentant Ahalya is turned to stone, only to be liberated by Rama, and Indra runs away disguised as a cat but is cursed to bear the marks of a thousand vulvae. The ''Ramavataram'' is an example of the [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti-era]] poets who exalt Rama as a saviour.{{sfn|Ramanujan|1991|pp=28–32}}{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973|p=213}}

Although opinions differ on whether the ''Bala Kanda'' narrative of Ahalya refers to the divinity of Rama, later sources assert Rama's divine status, portraying Ahalya as a condemned woman rescued by God.{{sfn|Ray|2007|pp=25–26}}{{efn|name=Bala Kanda episode}}{{efn|name=taaraya}} The Bhakti-era poets use the episode as an archetypal example to demonstrate God's saving grace. The main theme of such narratives is her deliverance by Rama, which is seen as proof of his compassion.{{sfn|Goldman|1990|p=45}}

Most of the fifth chapter of the ''Bala Kanda'' Book of the ''[[Adhyatma Ramayana]]'' (embedded in the ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'', c. 14th century) is dedicated to the Ahalya episode. Like most other versions of the story, Ahalya is turned into stone and advised to engross herself in meditation of Rama, "the Supreme Lord". When Rama touches the stone with his foot on Vishvamitra's advice, Ahalya rises as a beautiful maiden and sings a long [[panegyric]] dedicated to Rama. She describes his [[Hindu iconography|iconographic]] form and exalts him as an avatar of Vishnu and source of the universe to whom many divinities pay their respects. After worshipping him, she returns to Gautama. At the end of the narrative, Ahalya's hymn is prescribed as an ideal benediction for a devotee to gain Rama's favour.{{sfn|Dhody|1995|pp=17–20}} The [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] ''[[Ramacharitamanasa]]'' (16th century) drops the narrative of Indra's visit to Ahalya. In this epic, Vishvamitra tells Rama that the cursed Ahalya has assumed the form of a rock and is patiently awaiting the dust from Rama's feet.{{sfn|Gita Press|2004|pp=147–148}} Ahalya tells Rama that Gautama was right to pronounce the curse, and she deems it as the greatest favour, for as a result, she feasted her eyes on Rama, who liberated her from her worldly existence.{{sfn|Gita Press|2004|pp=147–148}} As in the ''Adhyatma Ramayana'', Ahalya lauds Rama as the great Lord served by other divinities, asks for the boon of eternal engrossment in his devotion and afterwards leaves for her husband's abode. The narrative ends with praise for Rama's compassion.{{sfn|Prasad|1990|pp=145–146}} Tulsidas alludes to this episode numerous times in the ''Ramacharitamanasa'' while highlighting the significance of Rama's benevolence.{{sfn|Prasad|1990|pp=22, 158, 180, 243, 312, 692}} Commenting on this narrative in the ''Ramacharitamanasa'', Rambhadracharya says that Rama destroyed three things: the sin of Ahalya by his sight, the curse by the dust of his feet and the affliction by the touch of his feet, evidenced by the use of the ''Tribhangi'' (meaning "destroyer of the three") [[Meter (poetry)|metre]] in the verses which form Ahalya's panegyric.{{sfn|Rambhadracharya|2006|pp=101, 269}}

=== Other variants ===

In some rare exceptions, the curse is dropped. In an instance in the ''Mahabharata'', where details of the seduction are absent, an agitated Gautama orders his son Chirakari to behead his "polluted" mother and leaves the ashram. However, Chirakari is hesitant to follow the order and later concludes that Ahalya is innocent. Gautama returns and repents his hasty decision, realising that Indra is the guilty party.{{sfn|Söhnen-Thieme|1996|p=45}}{{sfn|Ganguli Shanti Parva|1883–1896|loc=[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b093.htm chap. CCLXVI]}} In the Bhil ''Ramayana'', Gautama attacks and imprisons Indra, who is freed when he promises to shower rain on the crops as the rain god. He must also ensure that one quarter of the crops is dedicated to Gautama. Here, Ahalya is interpreted as dry and burnt land, eager for the rains sent by Indra, who is tamed by the wild [[cyclone|cyclonic]] Gautama.{{sfn|Jhaveri|2001|pp=149–52}}