Editing History of science (section)

===Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science===
[[File:Justus Sustermans - Portrait of Galileo Galilei, 1636.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Galileo Galilei]], father of modern science.]]

The [[early modern period]] is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance. There was a willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers. This resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the [[Scientific Revolution]], which led to the emergence of a New Science that was more [[Mechanical philosophy|mechanistic]] in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined [[scientific method]].<ref name= "lindberg2007n"/><ref name="gal2021i"/><ref name="bowlermorus2020b"/><ref>See, for example, {{harvnb|Heilbron|2003|pp=741–744}}</ref> The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics, and is traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when the books ''[[De humani corporis fabrica]]'' (''On the Workings of the Human Body'') by [[Andreas Vesalius]], and also ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium|De Revolutionibus]]'', by the astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], were first printed. The period culminated with the publication of the ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' in 1687 by [[Isaac Newton]], representative of the unprecedented growth of [[Antiquarian science book|scientific publications]] throughout Europe.

Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Edmond Halley]], [[William Harvey]], [[Pierre Fermat]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Marin Mersenne]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[Blaise Pascal]].<ref name="Schuster 1996">{{cite book |author-last=Schuster |author-first=John A. |year=1996 |orig-date=1990 |editor1-last=Cantor |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor2-last=Olby |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Christie |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=Hodge |editor4-first=Jonathon |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |chapter=Scientific Revolution |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |location=[[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=217–242 |isbn=978-0415145787 |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191043/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |url-status=live }}</ref> In philosophy, major contributions were made by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], Sir [[Thomas Browne]], [[René Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Pierre Gassendi]], [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Thomas Hobbes]].<ref name="Schuster 1996"/> [[Christiaan Huygens]] derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena. [[William Gilbert (astronomer)|William Gilbert]] did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.

====Heliocentrism====
[[File:Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]]]

The [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] astronomical model of the universe was refined by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]. Copernicus proposed the idea that the Earth and all heavenly spheres, containing the planets and other objects in the cosmos, rotated around the Sun.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York, NY |pages=47}}</ref> His heliocentric model also proposed that all stars were fixed and did not rotate on an axis, nor in any motion at all.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knox |first=Dilwyn |title=Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth |date=1999 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |journal=Bruniana & Campanelliana |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=333–366 |jstor=24331708 |issn=1125-3819 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025441/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708 |url-status=live }}</ref> His theory proposed the yearly rotation of the Earth and the other heavenly spheres around the Sun and was able to calculate the distances of planets using deferents and epicycles. Although these calculations were not completely accurate, Copernicus was able to understand the distance order of each heavenly sphere. The Copernican heliocentric system was a revival of the hypotheses of [[Aristarchus of Samos]] and [[Seleucus of Seleucia]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |date=1973 |title=From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=117 |issue=6 |pages=513–522 |jstor=986462 |issn=0003-049X}}</ref> Aristarchus of Samos did propose that the Earth rotated around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres' order, motion, or rotation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neugebauer |first=O. |date=1945 |title=The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/542323 |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1086/370729 |jstor=542323 |s2cid=39274542 |issn=0022-2968}}</ref> Seleucus of Seleucia also proposed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres. In addition, Seleucus of Seleucia understood that the Moon rotated around the Earth and could be used to explain the tides of the oceans, thus further proving his understanding of the heliocentric idea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carman |first=Christián C. |date=2018 |title=The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 |jstor=45211937 |s2cid=253894214 |issn=0003-9519 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025440/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937 |url-status=live |hdl=11336/72174 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>