Editing History of science (section)

===Revival of learning===
The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century [[Scholasticism]]. The [[Northern Renaissance]] showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).<ref>[[Allen Debus]], ''Man and Nature in the Renaissance'', (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978).</ref> Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant [[Reformation]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Counter-Reformation]]; the discovery of the Americas by [[Christopher Columbus]]; the [[Fall of Constantinople]]; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by [[Vesalius]] on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.<ref>Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the [[Library of Congress]]. A list of these titles can be found in {{harvnb|Bruno|1989}}</ref>

The discovery of [[Cristallo]] contributed to the advancement of science in the period as well with its appearance out of Venice around 1450. The new glass allowed for better spectacles and eventually to the inventions of the [[telescope]] and [[microscope]].

[[Theophrastus]]' work on rocks, ''Peri lithōn'', remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution.

During the [[Italian Renaissance]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] established the emphasis of modern political science on direct [[empirical]] [[observation]] of political [[institution]]s and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the [[the Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://world101.cfr.org/contemporary-history/prelude-global-era/what-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics|title=What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?|website=World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations|date=17 February 2023 }}</ref> In particular, the study of [[statistics]], to study the subjects of the [[Sovereign state|state]], has been applied to [[Opinion poll|polling]] and [[voting]].

In archaeology, the 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of [[antiquarian]]s in [[Renaissance Europe]] who were interested in the collection of artifacts.