Editing Chinese mythology (section)

== Important deities, spirits, and mythological people ==
[[File:WenChang-MingDynasty-ROM-May8-08.png|thumb|right|150px|[[Wenchang Wang]], Chinese God of literature, carved in ivory, {{Circa|1550}}–1644, [[Ming dynasty]].]]
{{Main|Chinese gods and immortals}}
{{Further|List of Chinese mythology|:Category:Chinese legendary creatures}}
There are various important deities, spirits, and mythological people in Chinese mythology and folk religion. Some are clearly divine, such as the Jade Emperor (and even he is sometimes said to have begun life as a mortal). However, in Chinese language many beings are referred to as ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]''. (Sometimes Chinese mythology is called {{lang|zh|中國神話}} – [[Mandarin Chinese]]: ''Zhōngguó Shénhuà''). Due to the ambiguity of this word when translated into English, it is not always clear how to classify in English the entities described as ''shen''. The category ''shen'' is rather comprehensive and generic in Chinese myth and religion, ''shen'' may be ''spirits'', ''goddesses'' or ''gods'', ''ghosts'', or other. Another important concept is the classification of immortals (''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]''). Immortals are more a category of quality than a description of an actual type. Immortals are defined by living for a long time (maybe forever). However, this is not a static quality, since Daoist adepts, shamans, or others are said to become immortals through right effort and various practices. Another example is the immortality sometimes obtained by the [[arhat|lohans]], [[Bodhisattva]]s, and [[Buddha]]s of Buddhist religion and mythology (this contrasts with indefinitely prolonged series of unenlightened re-births). Chinese mythology often tends to not make a clear differentiation between Buddhist and Daoist types. Various deities, spirits, and immortals (''xian'') are encountered in various myths. Some of these are particularly associated with Daoism. Some immortals or others became incorporated into Daoism as it developed as a phenomenon, deriving from ancient shamanic cults or other sources. The line between Daoism and folk religion is not clear. Other mythological beings are clearly derived through the process of the introduction of Buddhism into China.

===Major deities===
The concept of a principal or presiding deity has fluctuated over time in Chinese mythology.

====Shangdi====
{{Main|Shangdi}}
Shangdi, also sometimes ''Huángtiān Dàdì'' ({{lang|zh|皇天大帝}}), appeared as early as the [[Shang dynasty]]. In later eras, he was more commonly referred to as ''Huángtiān Shàngdì'' ({{lang|zh|皇天上帝}}). The use of ''Huángtiān Dàdì'' refers to the [[Jade Emperor]] and ''[[Tian]]''.

====Jade Emperor====
{{Main|Jade Emperor}}
Chinese mythology holds that the Jade Emperor was charged with running of the three realms: heaven, hell, and the realm of the living. The Jade Emperor adjudicated and meted out rewards and remedies to saints, the living, and the deceased according to a merit system loosely called the Jade Principles Golden Script ({{lang|zh|玉律金篇}}, ''Yù lǜ jīn piān''). When proposed judgments were objected to, usually by other saints, the administration would occasionally resort to the counsels of advisory elders. The '''Jade Emperor''' appeared in literature after the establishment of [[Taoism]] in China; his appearance as ''Yu Huang'' dates back to beyond the times of [[Yellow Emperor]], [[Nüwa]], or [[Fuxi]].

====Tian====
{{Main|Tian}}
Tian can be either a sky deity by that name or [[Heaven#Chinese faiths|Heaven]] – the Sky itself. Tian appeared in literature c. 700 BCE, possibly earlier as dating depends on the date of the [[Shujing]] (''Book of Documents''). There are no creation-oriented narratives for Tian. The qualities of Tian and Shangdi appear to have merged in later literature and are now worshiped as one entity ("{{lang|zh|皇天上帝}}", Huángtiān Shàngdì) in, for example, the Beijing's [[Temple of Heaven]]. The extent of the distinction between Tian and Shangdi is debated. The sinologist [[Herrlee Creel]] claims that an analysis of the [[Oracle bone|Shang oracle bones]] reveals Shangdi to have preceded Tian as a deity, and that Zhou dynasty authors replaced the term "Shangdi" with "Tian" to cement the claims of their influence.

====Nüwa====
{{Main|Nüwa}}
Nüwa (or Nügua) is considered a mother goddess of Chinese mythology. She was involved in the creation of humanity and repairing the Pillars of Heaven. Nüwa is often depicted as half snake, half human, and is sometimes considered one of the Three Sovereigns, along with her brother and husband [[Fuxi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nügua |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100241815 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

====Fuxi====
{{Main|Fuxi}}
Fuxi is the first of the [[Three Sovereigns]]. He created humanity alongside his sister and wife [[Nüwa]], and like her, is depicted as half snake, half human. Fuxi is closely associated with the [[I Ching]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fuxi |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095839441 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

===Daoism and Chinese mythology===
{{Further|Daoism}}

Over time certain aspects of folk religion and belief coalesced and were refined into a group of formal religious beliefs, practices, and philosophy known as [[Daoism]]. One of the founders of Daoism was Old Man [[Laozi]], who himself entered into legend or mythology. There is much overlap between religion and mythology, and between Chinese folk religion and Daoism. However, certain beings or concepts of Chinese mythology have a particularly strong association with religious or philosophical Daoism. For example, the Jade Emperor, Yùhuáng, is a major actor in many myths. In Daoist-related mythology there is often a strong presence of sorcery and magic, such as spells, charms, magical abilities, and elixirs. The development of Daoism as it came to be called was a lengthy one, with various strands including both rationalist ethical philosophy and a [[magico-religious]] stand informed by mythology. As Daoism developed as a concept from its traditional roots in Chinese folk religion and mythology, its legitimacy was bolstered by claims of originating with Huangdi, the [[Yellow Emperor]].{{sfn|Ferguson|1928|p=20}} For example some of the ''[[Huangdi Sijing]] material'', the ''[[Huangdi Yinfujing]]'',  and  the ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]'' are Daoist classics with claims to a scriptural legacy going back to Huangdi.

===Buddhist influences===
[[File:Boxwood statue of Avalokiteshvara (Guan-Yin).jpg|thumb|Boxwood statue of Avalokiteshvara (Guan-Yin)]]
{{Further|Buddhism|Chinese Buddhism}}

Buddhism was historically introduced to China, probably in the first century CE, accompanied by the import of various ideas about deities and supernatural beings including Kṣitigarbha who was renamed [[Ksitigarbha|Dizang]]. the [[Four Heavenly Kings]], the main Buddha himself [[Shakyamuni Buddha]] ({{lang|zh|釋迦牟尼佛}}, Shìjiāmóunífó), Avalokiteśvara who after a few centuries metamorphosized into [[Guanyin]] (also Kuanyin) a [[bodhisattva]] of compassion, and Hotei the [[Budai|Laughing Buddha]]. New Buddhist material continued to enter China, with a big spike in the Tang dynasty, when the monk [[Xuanzang]] brought over 600 texts from India.{{sfn|Schafer|1963|pp=273–275}} Over time, Guanyin also became a Daoist immortal and was the subject of much mythology.

====Guanyin====
[[File:WLA haa Song wood Guanyin.jpg|thumb|Song wood Guanyin]]
{{Main|Guanyin}}

Guanyin is also known as Kwan Yin, Guanshiyin, the Goddess of Mercy and many other names. The mythology around Guanyin is two-fold, one based on the [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokitasvara/Avalokiteśvara]] tradition from India and one based on an alleged Chinese young woman's life, as appears in the [[Guanyin#Miaoshan|legend of Miaoshan]]. Guanyin is worshiped as a goddess, yet has a most impressive mythological résumé. Many myths and legends exist about Guan Yin. In all of them she is exceptionally compassionate.

====Kṣitigarbha====
Kṣitigarbha was a Buddhist deity from the area of India who was renamed [[Ksitigarbha|Dizang]], In China. He usually appears as a monk with a [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] around his shaved head, he carries a [[khakkhara|staff]] to force open the gates of hell and a [[Cintamani|wish-fulfilling jewel]] to light up the darkness.

====Four Heavenly Kings====
There are a group known as the Four Heavenly Kings, one for each cardinal direction. Statues of them can be encountered in the Hall of the Heavenly Kings of many Buddhist temples.

====Laughing Buddha====
[[File:Laughing Buddha statue.jpg|thumb|Laughing Buddha statue]]
The depiction of a fat, laughing Buddha developed in China.{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

===Confucian influence===
{{Further|Confucius}}

A major factor in Chinese mythology is shown in the development of the tradition known as [[Confucianism]], named after a writer and school master who lived around 551–479 BCE. Confucius embraced the traditions of [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor veneration]]. He came to be a major figure of worship in Daoism, which had its genesis in traditional Chinese religion. The legitimacy of the Confucian movement was bolstered by the claim that its origins could be found in the mythology (often claimed to be history) of [[Yao (ruler)|Yao]] and [[Emperor Shun|Shun]].{{sfn|Ferguson|1928|p=20}}

===Sharing between folk religion and mythology===
[[File:Altar to Guandi in a restaurant of Beijing.png|thumb|Altar to Guandi in a restaurant of Beijing]]

Modern and ancient Chinese culture had plenty of room for both religion and mythology. Certain deities or spirits receive special attention. These include divinities of wealth, longevity, fertility. Mythologically, it is possible to attain many desires through ritual activity involved with mythological themes. For example, many stores and restaurants in China or of the Chinese diaspora have shrines to [[Guan Yu]], also known as Guandi.

====Guandi====
{{Main|Guan Yu}}

Guandi began as a [[Three Kingdoms]] general, [[Guan Yu]]. Over the subsequent centuries, Guan Yu became promoted by official decree to be the god Guandi. He is a god primarily of brotherhood and social organizations such as businesses, although this is sometimes seen in connection with martial power and war. According to mythology, Guan Yu made a famous covenant of brotherhood in a peach orchard.

====Three Star deities====
[[File:The Star God of Longevity, China, Ming dynasty, 16th century, glazed stoneware, HAA.JPG|thumb|The Star God of Longevity, China, Ming dynasty, 16th century, glazed stoneware]]
{{Further|Sanxing (deities)}}

=====Star God of Longevity=====

An example of Sharing between folk religion and mythology is the Star God of Longevity.

===Afterlife and family===
{{Further|Hun and po|Ghosts in Chinese culture}}
Much Chinese mythology concerns the afterlife, explaining what happens to people after they die. This is related to [[ancestor veneration]], the mythological geography of heaven and hell, the rituals at family tombs, and so on.

====Immortals (''xiān'')====
{{Further|Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning|Neidan|Waidan|Taoist sexual practices|Bigu (grain avoidance)|Qigong}}
Sometimes, in mythology, certain humans develop the ability to live indefinitely, avoiding death, and becoming divine ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xiān]]''. Such humans generally also are said to develop special powers. Generally, these abilities are said to develop through such practices of [[Chinese alchemy]], obtaining an [[Elixir of life]],<ref name="ASOCA">Obed Simon Johnson, A Study of Chinese Alchemy, page Shanghai, Commercial, 1928. rpt. New York: Arno P, 1974.</ref> and/or various austerities of diet or sexuality. Symbolic associations with immortality include a spotted deer, cranes, the [[Lingzhi mushroom]], and a gourd and bat. often Immortals are mythologically located in Mountain Paradises, such as Kunlun. Various common English translations of ''xiān'' exist, such as Immortal, Fairy, and Sage. An example of a Daoist immortal is [[Wong Tai Sin]], who began as a fourth century CE hermit and developed into a divine healer.

=====Magu=====
[[File:Dish with Magu, deity of longevity, China, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, Qing dynasty, approx. 1700-1800 AD, porcelain with overglaze polychrome - Asian Art Museum of San Francisco - DSC01663.JPG|thumb|Dish with Magu, deity of longevity, China, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, Qing dynasty, approx. 1700–1800 AD, porcelain with overglaze polychrome]]
{{Main|Magu (deity)}}

Magu is a legendary [[Taoist]] [[Xian (Taoism)|''xian'']] (transcendent"), still currently worshiped. Magu is associated with the [[elixir of life]], and is a symbolic protector of females in Chinese mythology. Stories in [[Chinese literature]] describe Magu as a beautiful young woman with long birdlike fingernails, while early myths associate her with caves. Magu's name literally compounds two common [[Chinese language|Chinese]] words: ''ma'' "cannabis; hemp" and ''gu'' "aunt; maid".

====Ghosts or spirits of the deceased====
{{Further|Hun and po|Ghosts in Chinese culture|Ghost Festival}}

Common beliefs and stories in Chinese mythology involve a soul or spirit that survives after the death of someone's body. There are many types.

====Living dead====
[[Jiangshi]] are a type of re-animated corpse.

=====Zhong Kui=====
{{Main|Zhong Kui}}

In the mythological folklore, [[Zhong Kui]] is regarded as a vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings. He committed suicide upon being unfairly stripped of his title of "''[[Zhuangyuan]]''" (top-scorer) of the [[Imperial examinations in Chinese mythology|Imperial Examinations]] by the emperor, due to his disfigured and ugly appearance. His spirit was condemned to [[Diyu|Hell]] because suicide was considered a grave sin, but [[Yama (Buddhism and Chinese mythology)|Yama]] (the Chinese Hell King) judged him worthy of the title "King of Ghosts" in Diyu (Hell). Yama tasked him to hunt, capture, take charge of, and maintain discipline and order of all ghosts. On [[Chinese New Year]]'s eve, Zhong Kui returned to his hometown to repay the kindness of his friend Du Ping ({{lang|zh|杜平}}).

====Holidays and festival rituals====
{{Further|Traditional Chinese holidays}}

Abundant mythology is associated with religious holidays and folk festivals.

=====Qingming Festival=====
{{Further|Qingming Festival|Cold Food Festival}}

The Qingming festival is a good example of a Chinese holiday that involves family activities associated with a seasonally-recurring annual event; and, also, ancestor veneration.

=====Qixi Festival=====
{{Main|Qixi Festival}}

The seasonally-recurring annual holiday of [[Qixi]] involves love and romance. A main mythological tale is "[[The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl]]".

===Weather deities===
Various deities or spirits are associated with weather phenomena, such as drought or thunder. Dragons are often associated with rain. Examples include the deity or mythological person Ba, also known as [[Nuba (Chinese mythology)|Hànbá]] or Nuba. Ba is the daughter of the [[Yellow Emperor]] (Huangdi) whom she aided during his [[Battle of Zhuolu|Battle at Zhuolu]] against [[Chiyou]]: after Chiyou had fielded a wind god ([[Fengbo (deity)|Feng Bo]]) and a rain god ([[Yu Shi]]), Ba descended from heaven to use her drought power to defeat their wind and rain powers. She is one of the first goddesses attested to in Chinese literature, appearing in the early collection of poetry, the ''[[Shijing]]'', as well as in the later ''[[Shanhaijing]]''.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pp=79–80}} At least up through the middle of the twentieth century, ceremonies to produce rain were held in many regions of China. The basic idea of these ceremonies, which could last several hours, was to drive Ba out of the region. Another example, is [[Lei Gong]], god of thunder.

===Astronomical deities===
Various goddesses, gods, or spirits are especially associated with certain astronomical objects.

====Sun (and Suns)====
Various mythology involves the sun. One solar deity is [[Xihe (deity)|Xihe]], goddess of the sun. There is a myth of [[Kua Fu]], a giant who followed the sun, during the course of his chase he drained all of the waters dry including the Yellow River, and after he died of thirst was transformed into a mountain range or a forest. Known as 
[[Three-legged crow#China|sānzúwū]] are three-legged raven or ravens associated with the sun, or the ten suns, of which [[Hou Yi|Houyi]] shot down nine. Sometimes mythology portrays there being more than one sun.

=====Houyi and the Ten Suns=====
It was said that there were ten suns, each one taking a turn on its allotted day to cross the sky (this has been thought evidence of a ten-day week used at one time). There is a mythological account of how at one on a certain morning ten suns all rose into the sky together. The oppressive heat lead to drought, the plants began to wither, and humans and animals were all on the verge of death. A mighty archer Yi, or Houyi, shot down all but one of them, saving humanity.

====Moon====
[[File:Tang dynasty bronze mirror with moon goddess and rabbit design, HAA.JPG|thumb|Tang dynasty bronze mirror with design on back depicting moon goddess, partially-chopped tree, three-legged toad, and rabbit with mortar and pestle]]
[[Chang'e (mythology)|Chang'e]] (or in older versions Chang'O) is goddess of the moon. Another lunar deity is [[Changxi]], probably an older version of Chang'e with the name changed due to a naming taboo. Chang'e is modern.

=====Chang'e=====
In mythology it was said that Chang'e had been married to the heroic archer [[Hou Yi|Houyi]], but one day she swallowed a Pill of Immortality and floated up to the moon. Now it is said Chang'e lives in a cold crystal palace on the moon. Every year during a full moon toward harvest time, Chang'e is worshiped. This is the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]], families gather under the moonlight and celebrate in honour of the moon. Although somewhat lonely, Chang'e is not alone on the moon.

=====Wu Gang and the Magic Tree=====
A magical tree grows on the moon. It is possibly an osmanthus tree (''Osmanthus fragrans''), some type of laurel ([[Lauraceae]]), such as a cassia such as (''Cinnamomum cassia''), but more likely a unique specimen of a magical tree. Every month the ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' [[Wu Gang]] cuts away at the tree, chopping it smaller and smaller. Then, just when he just has it chopped completely down, it magically grows back. Once it has grown back Wu Gang returns to his chopping, in an endless monthly cycle.

=====Rabbit in the Moon=====
An [[Chinese alchemy|alchemical]] hare or rabbit lives on the moon. The lunar rabbit can be seen when the moon is full, busy with mortar and pestle, preparing the Elixir of Immortality.

=====Three-legged toad=====
[[File:Good-fortune three-legged toad vermilion ink pad.jpg|thumb|Good-fortune three-legged toad with a reservoir for vermilion ink paste used for stamping seals]]
(See [[Liu Haichan]] for Chinese characters)

A three-legged toad lives on the moon. During full moons the three-legged Golden Toad [[Jin Chan]] frequents near houses or businesses that will soon receive good news generally in the form of wealth. Also known as a Money Toad, statuettes of this toad are used as a charm in [[Fengshui]]. The mythology of the Immortal [[Liu Haichan]] (who seems to be a form of [[Caishen]]/Zhao Gong, God of Wealth) is associated with this tripedal toad.

===Deities of places===
Various goddesses, gods, spirits, fairies, or monsters are associated with specific places, such as particular rivers, mountains, or the ocean. Some of these locations are associated with real geography, others are known only through mythological imagination.

====Xi Wangmu====
Xi Wangmu, meaning Queen Mother of the West, predates organized Daoism, yet is now strongly identified with Daoism. Xi Wangmu is generally mythologically located in a western wonderland "to the west", now identified with the [[Kunlun (mythology)|Kunlun]] of mythology. Thus, she is the ruler of a passageway between Earth and Heaven.

=====Mazu=====
[[Mazu (goddess)|Mazu]] is a major goddess. She is a goddess of the sea. Mazu worship is credited with leading to miraculous salvations at sea, protecting sailors and travelers from drowning. She is a tutelary deity of seafarers, including fishermen and sailors, especially along coastal China and areas of the Chinese diaspora.

====Xiang River goddesses====

The two [[Xiang River goddesses]] are ancient in mythology. They are associated with the [[Xiang River]] in the former [[Chu (state)|Chu]] area of China. They are also mythologically credited with causing a [[Spotted bamboo|certain type of bamboo]] to develop a mottled appearance said to resemble tear-drops (''lacrima'' ''deae''). The two Xiang River goddesses (Xiangfei) are named Éhuáng and Nǚyīng.

===Deities or spirits of human activities===
[[File:Guardians and Dieties from the Water-Land Ritual.jpg|thumb|[[Shuilu ritual paintings|Shuilu ritual painting]] of Guardians and Deities]]
Various deities or spirits are associated with certain human activities. Various deities or spirits are associated with the households in general or with cities. Some provide tutelary help to persons pursuing certain occupations or seeking to have children.

====Household deities and spirits====
The Chinese household was often the subject of mythology and related ritual. The welfare of the family was mythologically-related to the perceived help of helpful deities and spirits, and avoiding the baneful effects of malicious ones. Of these household deities the most important was the kitchen god [[Zao Jun]]. The Kitchen God was viewed as a sort of intermediary between the household and the supreme god, who would judge, then reward or punish a household based on the Kitchen God's report.{{sfn|Christie|1968|p=112}} Zao Jun was propitiated at appropriate times by offerings of food and incense, and various mythological stories about him exist. Lesser deities or spirits were also thought to help out the household through their intervention. For example, the guardians of the  doors, the [[Menshen]] pair and others.

====Territories administrators====
Various deities and spirits have been mythologically associated with the welfare of areas of land and with cities. Some were good, tutelary guardians: others were malicious ghosts or evil hauntings.

=====Houtu=====
[[Houtu]] is a guardian deity of the earth.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005}}

=====Tudi=====
The Tudi or [[Tudigong]] were the spiritual dukes or gods in charge of protecting particular parcels of land, acting as the local gods of individual villages.

=====City gods=====
In old China, the city was almost synonymous with the city wall. Most cities also had a moat, made to further protect the perimeter of the city and as an artifact of building the ramparts.                           A [[City God (China)|City god]] guarded an individual city. There were many cities and many city gods.

====Occupational tutelaries====
The life of a scholar has long been pursued in China, in part due to rewarding those who study hard and do well in [[Imperial examinations|standardized tests]]. There is a whole area of myth around the [[Imperial examination in Chinese mythology]]. For example, in the area of literature, success in standardized tests, and other culture there are associated pair [[Kui Xing]] and [[Wenchang Wang]].

====Life and social association====
There are deities mythologically associated with various intimate aspects of human life, including motherhood, general sodality and formal syndicals, lifespan and fate, and war and death. Many are currently worshiped in Buddhism, Daoism, or Chinese folk religion. [[Guandi]] is a prominent example, but there are many others.

=====Promoters of health=====
[[File:Chinese woodcut, Famous medical figures; Sun Simiao Wellcome L0039324.jpg|thumb|Chinese woodcut, Famous medical figures: Sun Simiao]]
{{Further|Yaowang}}

A good example of a medicine deity is [[Sun Simiao]], who became Yaowang. Another is [[Baosheng Dadi]].

=====Bixia=====
[[Bixia]] is mythologically connected with motherhood and fertility. She is currently a popular goddess.

=====Siming=====
The [[Siming (deity)|Siming]] is a god of lifespan and fate.{{sfn|Hawkes|2011|p=109}}

=====Male sexuality=====
[[Tu'er Shen]] is a [[Hare|leveret]] or [[rabbit]] gay deity, patron of gay men who engage in same gender love and sexual activities.

===Miscellaneous mythological beings===
Various deities, spirits, or other mythological beings are encountered in Chinese mythology, some of them related to the religious beliefs of China. Some of them are currently worshiped, some of them now only appear as characters in myths, and some both ways.

* [[Fangfeng]]: the giant who helped fight flood, executed by Yu the Great
* [[Feng Meng]]: apprentice to Hou Yi, and his eventual murderer 
*[[Gao Yao (Xia dynasty)|Gao Yao]]
*[[Nezha]]: Taoist protection deity
*[[Tam Kung]]: sea deity with the ability to forecast weather
*[[Yuqiang]]: Yellow Emperor's descendant, god of north sea and wind
*[[Ji Gong|Daoji]]: compassionate folk hero known for wild and eccentric behaviour 
*[[Erlang Shen]]: possessed a third eye in the middle of his forehead that saw the truth

====Heroes====
[[File:Unknown artist, China - Generals Who Died for their Country and Officials of Former Times - 99.116 - Minneapolis Institute of Art.jpg|thumb|''Martyred Generals Who Died for their Country and Officials of Former Times'', Ming dynasty]]

=====Xingtian=====
[[Xingtian]] is a headless giant decapitated by the Yellow Emperor as punishment for challenging him; his face is on his torso as he has no head.