Editing Cetacea (section)

== Relationship to humans ==

=== Research history ===
{{See also|Cryptid whale|Whale#In myth, literature and art}}

[[File:Trolual (Gessner).jpg|thumb|A whale as depicted by Conrad Gesner, 1587, in ''Historiae animalium'']]
In [[Aristotle]]'s time, the fourth century BCE, whales were regarded as fish due to their superficial similarity. Aristotle, however, observed many physiological and anatomical similarities with the terrestrial vertebrates, such as blood (circulation), lungs, uterus and fin anatomy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/aristotle/histanimals8.html |title=The History of Animals, Book VIII |language=en |translator-last=Thompson |translator-first=D'Arcy Wentworth |chapter=Chapter 2 |access-date=April 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20220416102355/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/aristotle/histanimals8.html |archive-date=April 16, 2022}}</ref>  His detailed descriptions were assimilated by the Romans, but mixed with a more accurate knowledge of the dolphins, as mentioned by [[Pliny the Elder]] in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural history]]''. In the art of this and subsequent periods, dolphins are portrayed with a high-arched head (typical of porpoises) and a long snout. The [[harbour porpoise]] was one of the most accessible species for early [[cetology|cetologists]]; because it could be seen close to land, inhabiting shallow coastal areas of Europe. Much of the findings that apply to all cetaceans were first discovered in porpoises.<ref>{{cite book|author= Conrad Gesner|url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AriHian.html|title=Historiae animalium |date=6 September 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080906090248/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AriHian.html |archive-date=6 September 2008 |access-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> One of the first anatomical descriptions of the airways of a harbor porpoise dates from 1671 by John Ray. It nevertheless referred to the porpoise as a fish.<ref>{{cite journal|author=J. Ray|title=An account of the dissection of a porpess|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=6|issue=69–80|year=1671|pages=2274–2279|bibcode = 1671RSPT....6.2274R|doi=10.1098/rstl.1671.0048|s2cid=186210473|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Susanne Prahl|title=Studies for the construction of epicranialen airway when porpoise (Phocoena phocoena Linnaeus, 1758)|journal=Dissertation for the Doctoral Degree of the Department of Biology of the Faculty of Mathematics, Computer Science and Natural Sciences at the University of Hamburg|year=2007|page=6}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|The tube in the head, through which this kind fish takes its breath and spitting water, located in front of the brain and ends outwardly in a simple hole, but inside it is divided by a downward bony septum, as if it were two nostrils; but underneath it opens up again in the mouth in a void.|John Ray, 1671, the earliest description of cetacean airways}}

In the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae]] (1758), Swedish biologist and taxonomist [[Carl Linnaeus]] asserted that cetaceans were mammals and not fish. His groundbreaking binomial system formed the basis of modern whale classification.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Culture ===

{{More citations needed section|date=August 2024}}

[[File:Destruction of Leviathan.png|thumb|''Destruction of Leviathan''; engraving by [[Gustave Doré]], 1865]]
[[File:Tarentum.jpg|thumb|Silver coin with [[Taras (mythology)|Taras]] riding a dolphin]]
[[Stone Age]] [[petroglyphs]], such as those in Roddoy and Reppa (Norway), and the [[Bangudae Petroglyphs]] in South Korea, depict them.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.pcas.org/Vol36N2/11Meighan.pdf| title = PCAS Quarterly - Rock Art on the Channel Islands of California}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3638853.stm| title = BBC News - Rock Art Hints at Whaling Origins| date = 20 April 2004}}</ref> Whale bones were used for many purposes. In the [[Neolithic]] settlement of Skara Brae on [[Orkney]] sauce pans were made from whale vertebrae.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} The whale was first mentioned in [[ancient Greece]] by [[Homer]]. There, it is called Ketos, from which was derived the Roman word for whale, [[Cetus (mythology)|Cetus]]. In the [[Bible]] especially, the leviathan plays a role as a [[sea monster]]. The prophet [[Jonah]], on his flight from the city of [[Nineveh]], is swallowed by a whale.
Dolphins are mentioned far more often than whales. Aristotle discusses the sacred animals of the Greeks in his ''[[Historia Animalium]]''. The Greeks admired the dolphin as a "king of the aquatic animals" and referred to them erroneously as fish. [[Dolphins in mythology|Dolphins appear in Greek mythology]]. Because of their intelligence, they rescued multiple people from drowning. They were said to love music, probably because of their own song, and in the legends they saved famous musicians, such as [[Arion]] of [[Lesbos]] from [[Mithymna|Methymna]]. Dolphins belong to the domain of [[Poseidon]] and led him to his wife [[Amphitrite]]. Dolphins are associated with other gods, such as [[Apollo]], [[Dionysus]] and [[Aphrodite]]. The Greeks paid tribute to both whales and dolphins with their own constellation. The constellation of the Whale (Ketos, lat. [[Cetus]]) is located south of the Dolphin (Delphi, lat. [[Delphinus]]) north of the [[zodiac]]. Ancient art often included dolphin representations, including the Cretan [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]]. A particularly popular representation is that of Arion or [[Taras (mythology)|Taras]] riding on a dolphin. In early [[Christian art]], the dolphin is a popular motif, at times used as a symbol of [[Christ]].

==== Middle Ages to the 19th century ====
{{See also|History of Whaling|Cryptid whales}}
[[File:La Baleine.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of baleen whaling, 1840]]
[[File:Im Februar 1598 an der holländischen Küste gestrandeter Walfisch.jpg|thumb|right|Stranded sperm whale engraving, 1598]]

[[St. Brendan]] described in his travel story ''Navigatio Sancti Brendani'' an encounter with a whale, between the years 565–573.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} Most descriptions of large whales from the Middle Ages until the whaling era, beginning in the 17th century, were of beached whales. [[Raymond Gilmore]] documented seventeen sperm whales in the estuary of the Elbe from 1723 to 1959 and thirty-one animals on the coast of Great Britain in 1784. In 1827, a blue whale beached itself off the coast of Ostend. Whales were used as attractions in museums and traveling exhibitions.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
Whalers from the 17th to 19th centuries depicted whales in drawings and recounted tales of their occupation. Although they knew that whales were harmless giants, they described battles with harpooned animals. These included descriptions of sea monsters, including huge whales, sharks, sea snakes, giant squid and octopuses.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} Among the first whalers who described their experiences on whaling trips was Captain [[William Scoresby]] from Great Britain, who published the book ''Northern Whale Fishery'', describing the hunt for northern baleen whales. This was followed by [[Thomas Beale]], a British surgeon, in his book ''Some observations on the natural history of the sperm whale'' in 1835; and Frederick Debell Bennett's ''The tale of a whale hunt'' in 1840. Whales were described in narrative literature and paintings, most famously in the novels ''[[Moby-Dick|Moby Dick]]'' by [[Herman Melville]] and ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas]]'' by [[Jules Verne]].{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Baleen was used to make vessel components such as the bottom of a bucket in the Scottish National Museum. The [[Norsemen]] crafted ornamented plates from baleen.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} In the Canadian Arctic (east coast) in Punuk and [[Thule]] culture (1000–1600 C.E.),<ref>{{cite journal|title=The circumpolar zone|last1=Cunliffe|first1=B.|last2=Gosden|first2=C.|last3=Joyce|first3=R.|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Archaeology}}</ref> baleen was used to construct houses in place of wood as roof support for winter houses.<ref>{{cite journal|author=J. Savelle| title=The Role of Architectural utility in the formation of archaeological Whale Bone Assemblages|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=24| issue=10|year=1997|pages=869–885|doi=10.1006/jasc.1996.0167| bibcode=1997JArSc..24..869S}}<!--|access-date=4 September 2015--></ref>

==== Modern culture ====
{{Further|Whale#Interactions with humans}}
[[File:Sea World1.jpg|thumb|Sea World show featuring [[bottlenose dolphin]]s and [[false killer whale]]s]]

In the 20th century, perceptions of cetaceans changed. They transformed from monsters into creatures of wonder, as science revealed them to be intelligent and peaceful animals. Hunting was replaced by whale and dolphin tourism. This change is reflected in films and novels. For example, the protagonist of the series ''[[Flipper (1995 TV series)|Flipper]]'' was a bottle-nose dolphin. The TV series ''[[SeaQuest DSV]]'' (1993–1996), the movies ''[[Free Willy]]'' and ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'', and the book series ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]] are examples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.movieretriever.com/videohound_lists/90895/Whales|title=Movie Retriever: Whales|author=unknown|work=movieretriever.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015214719/http://www.movieretriever.com/videohound_lists/90895/Whales|archive-date=2015-10-15}}</ref>

The study of [[Whale vocalization|whale songs]] also produced a popular album, ''[[Songs of the Humpback Whale (album)|Songs of the Humpback Whale]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Dell |first=Cary |title="Songs of the Humpback Whale" (1970) |url=https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/humpback%20whales.pdf |website=Library of Congress}}</ref>

=== Captivity ===
Whales and dolphins have been kept in captivity for use in education, research and entertainment since the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bosworth |first=Amanda |title=Barnum's Whales: The Showman and the Forging of Modern Animal Captivity |url=https://www.historians.org/perspectives-article/barnums-whales-the-showman-and-the-forging-of-modern-animal-captivity/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=Historians |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Belugas ====
{{Main|Beluga whale#Captivity}}
[[Beluga whale]]s were the first whales to be kept in captivity. Other species were too rare, too shy or too big. The first was shown at [[Barnum's American Museum|Barnum's Museum]] in [[New York City]] in 1861.<ref name="New York Tribune">{{cite web | url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/lostmuseum/lm/190/ | title=The Whales, New York Tribune, August 9, 1861 | access-date=5 December 2011 | date=9 August 1861 | work=New York Tribune}}</ref> For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source.<ref name=cmeps /> They were taken from the [[Saint Lawrence River|St. Lawrence River]] estuary until the late 1960s, after which they were predominantly taken from the [[Churchill River (Hudson Bay)|Churchill River]] estuary until capture was banned in 1992.<ref name="cmeps">{{cite web|url=http://webpages.charter.net/hrynyshyn/pdfs/Beluga_Report_web2006.pdf |title=Beluga Whales in Captivity: Hunted, Poisoned, Unprotected |access-date=26 December 2014 |year=2006 |work=Special Report on Captivity 2006 |publisher=Canadian Marine Environment Protection Society |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226215306/http://webpages.charter.net/hrynyshyn/pdfs/Beluga_Report_web2006.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2014 }}</ref> Russia then became the largest provider.<ref name=cmeps /> Belugas are caught in the [[Amu Darya|Amur Darya]] delta and their eastern coast and are transported domestically to aquaria or [[dolphinarium|dolphinaria]] in [[Moscow]], [[St. Petersburg]] and [[Sochi]], or exported to countries such as Canada.<ref name=cmeps /> They have not been domesticated.<ref name="zoos">{{cite web | url=http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | title=Beluga (''Delphinapterus leucas'') Facts – Distribution – In the Zoo | access-date=5 December 2011 | publisher=World Association of Zoos and Aquariums | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210101419/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | archive-date=10 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

As of 2006, 30 belugas lived in Canada and 28 in the United States. 42 deaths in captivity had been reported.<ref name=cmeps /> A single specimen can reportedly fetch up to US$100,000 ([[STG pound|£]]64,160). The beluga's popularity is due to its unique color and its [[facial expression]]s. The latter is possible because while most cetacean "smiles" are fixed, the extra movement afforded by the beluga's unfused cervical vertebrae allows a greater range of apparent expression.<ref name="Bonner, W.N. 17, 23–24">{{cite book |author=Bonner, Nigel |title=Whales |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-7137-0887-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whales0000bonn/page/17 17, 23–24] |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/whales0000bonn/page/17 }}</ref>

==== Orcas ====
{{Main|Captive killer whales}}
{{See also|SeaWorld#Criticism and resulting impact|Incidents at SeaWorld parks}}
[[File:2009-Seaworld-Shamu.jpg|thumb|Ulises the orca, 2009]]
The orca's [[animal intelligence|intelligence]], trainability, striking appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks. From 1976 to 1997, fifty-five whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, nineteen from Japan and three from Argentina. These figures exclude animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s and by 1999, about 40% of the forty-eight animals on display in the world were captive-born.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[National Marine Fisheries Service]] (NMFS) Northwest Regional Office |author=NMFS |year=2005 |url=http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Marine-Mammals/Whales-Dolphins-Porpoise/Killer-Whales/Conservation-Planning/upload/SRKW-propConsPlan.pdf |title=Conservation Plan for Southern Resident Killer Whales (''Orcinus orca'') |location=[[Seattle]], U.S. |access-date=January 2, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626121719/http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Marine-Mammals/Whales-Dolphins-Porpoise/Killer-Whales/Conservation-Planning/upload/SRKW-propConsPlan.pdf |archive-date=June 26, 2008 |url-status=dead |pages=43–44}}</ref>

Organizations such as [[World Animal Protection]] and the [[Whale and Dolphin Conservation]] campaign against the practice of keeping them in captivity.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the [[dorsal fin]] collapse seen in 60–90% of captive males. Captives have reduced life expectancy, on average only living into their 20s, although some live longer, including several over 30 years old and two, Corky II and Lolita, in their mid-40s. In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average and up to 70–80 years. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average and can reach 50–60 years.<ref>{{cite web|author=Rose, N. A.|year=2011|url=http://www.hsi.org/assets/pdfs/orca_white_paper.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026123839/http://www.hsi.org/assets/pdfs/orca_white_paper.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-26 |url-status=live|title=Killer Controversy: Why Orcas Should No Longer Be Kept in Captivity|publisher=Humane Society International and the Humane Society of the United States|access-date=December 21, 2014}}</ref>

Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild orca behavior. Wild orca may travel up to {{convert|160|km|mi|-1}} in a day and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity.<ref name="cbs2010">{{cite news|url= https://www.cbsnews.com/news/whale-attack-renews-captive-animal-debate/|title=Whale Attack Renews Captive Animal Debate|newspaper=CBS News|date=March 1, 2010|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref> Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of [[stress (medicine)|stress]].<ref name="armstrong">{{cite book|author=Susan Jean Armstrong|title=Animal Ethics Reader| isbn=978-0-415-27589-7|year=2003|publisher=Psychology Press }}</ref> Orcas are well known for their performances in shows, but the number of orcas kept in captivity is small, especially when compared to the number of bottlenose dolphins, with only forty-four [[List of captive orcas|captive orcas]] being held in aquaria as of 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orcahome.de/orcastat.htm|title=Orcas in Captivity – A look at killer whales in aquariums and parks|date=23 November 2009|access-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602050516/http://www.orcahome.de/orcastat.htm|archive-date=2 June 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Each country has its own tank requirements; in the US, the minimum enclosure size is set by the [[Code of Federal Regulations]], 9 CFR E §&nbsp;3.104, under the ''Specifications for the Humane Handling, Care, Treatment and Transportation of Marine Mammals''.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=c7a201bd3f7d31d5f8218167efcd49ba&node=9:1.0.1.1.3.5.31.5&rgn=div8|title=Chapter I: Space requirements|journal=Electronic Code of Federal Regulation|volume= 1|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Dawn Brancheau - Riders on the Storm.jpg|thumb|Dawn Brancheau doing a show four years before [[Incidents at SeaWorld parks#SeaWorld Orlando|the incident]]]]
Aggression among captive orcas is common. They attack each other and their trainers as well. In 2013, SeaWorld's treatment of orcas in captivity was the basis of the movie ''[[Blackfish (film)|Blackfish]]'', which documents the history of [[Tilikum (orca)|Tilikum]], an orca at SeaWorld Orlando, who had been involved in the deaths of three people.<ref>Whiting, Candace Calloway. [https://www.huffpost.com/entry/blackfish-killer-whales_b_4166923 In the Wake of Blackfish &ndash; Is it Time to Retire the Last Killer Whale Whose Capture Was Shown in the Film?"], HuffPost, October 29, 2013. Retrieved October 29, 2013.</ref> The film led to proposals by some lawmakers to ban captivity of cetaceans, and led SeaWorld to announce in 2016 that it would phase out its orca program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dalebuss/2016/03/24/it-was-a-losing-battle-seaworlds-ceo-on-its-abrupt-change-and-what-comes-next/#5754041a223b|title=Shamu Goes Out With the Tide: SeaWorld CEO On Its Abrupt Change &ndash; And What Comes Next|last=Buss|first=Dale|date=2016-03-24|website=Forbes|access-date=2016-03-26}}</ref>

==== Others ====
[[File:Short-finned Pilot Whale (8793172995).jpg|thumb|[[SeaWorld San Diego|SeaWorld]] [[pilot whale]] with trainers]]

Dolphins and porpoises are kept in captivity. [[Bottlenose dolphin]]s are the most common, as they are relatively easy to train, have a long lifespan in captivity and have a friendly appearance. Bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. Other species kept in captivity are [[Atlantic spotted dolphin|spotted dolphins]], [[false killer whale]]s and [[common dolphin]]s, [[Commerson's dolphin]]s, as well as [[rough-toothed dolphin]]s, but all in much lower numbers. There are also fewer than ten [[pilot whale]]s, [[Amazon river dolphin]]s, [[Risso's dolphin]]s, [[spinner dolphin]]s, or [[tucuxi]] in captivity. Two unusual and rare [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] dolphins, known as [[wolphins]], are kept at [[Sea Life Park]] in [[Hawaii]], which is a cross between a bottlenose dolphin and a [[false killer whale]]. Also, two [[Common dolphin|common]]/bottlenose hybrids reside in captivity at [[Discovery Cove]] and [[SeaWorld San Diego]].{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In repeated attempts in the 1960s and 1970s, [[narwhal]]s kept in captivity died within months. A breeding pair of [[pygmy right whale]]s were retained in a netted area. They were eventually released in South Africa. In 1971, SeaWorld captured a California gray whale calf in Mexico at [[Ojo de Liebre Lagoon|Scammon's Lagoon]]. The calf, later named Gigi, was separated from her mother using a form of lasso attached to her flukes. Gigi was displayed at [[SeaWorld San Diego]] for a year. She was then released with a radio beacon affixed to her back; however, contact was lost after three weeks. Gigi was the first captive baleen whale. JJ, another [[gray whale]] calf, was kept at [[SeaWorld San Diego]]. JJ was an orphaned calf that beached itself in April 1997 and was transported two miles to SeaWorld. The {{convert|680|kg|lbs}} calf was a popular attraction and behaved normally, despite separation from his mother. A year later, the then {{convert|8,164.7|kg|lbs}} whale though smaller than average, was too big to keep in captivity, and was released on April 1, 1998. A captive [[Amazon river dolphin]] housed at [[Acuario de Valencia]] is the only trained [[river dolphin]] in captivity.<ref name="Whales">{{cite book|url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RD-1991-001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509184324/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RD-1991-001.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-09 |url-status=live|last1=Klinowska|first1=Margaret|last2=Cooke|first2=Justin|year=1991| title=Dolphins, Porpoises, and Whales of the World: the IUCN Red Data Book|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| url=http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/2001/AquaticMammals_27-03/27-03_Goff.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015214719/http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/2001/AquaticMammals_27-03/27-03_Goff.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-15 |url-status=live |title=Growth of two gray whale calves|author1=J. L. Sumich|author2=T. Goff|author3=W. L. Perryman|journal=Aquatic Mammals|pages=231–233|year=2001|access-date=6 September 2015}}</ref>