Editing Xenophobia (section)

==== Russia ====
{{Main|Xenophobia in Russia}}
{{further|History of the Jews in the Soviet Union|History of the Jews in Russia}}
[[File:protestinrussia.jpg|thumb|A demonstration in Russia. The antisemitic slogans cite [[Henry Ford]] and [[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]].]]
Lien Verpoest explores the era of the Napoleonic wars to identify the formation of conservative ideas ranging from traditionalism to ardent patriotism and xenophobia.<ref>Lien Verpoest, "An Enlightened path towards conservatism: critical junctures and changing elite perceptions in early nineteenth-century Russia." ''European Review of History'' 24.5 (2017): 704–731 [https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/500034 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104213110/https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/500034 |date=4 November 2021 }}.</ref> Conservatives generally controlled Russia in the 19th century, and imposed xenophobia in education and the academy.  In the late 19th century, especially after nationalistic uprisings in Poland in the 1860s, the government displayed xenophobia in its hostility toward ethnic minorities that did not speak Russian. The decision was to reduce the use of other languages, and insist on Russification.<ref>A. V. Astakhova, "Xenophobia in the Public and Pedagogical Thought of the Russian Empire of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Pre-Soviet Period)." ''Russian Social Science Review'' 62.1–3 (2021): 16–22.</ref>

By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called [[Pale of Settlement]], the Western frontier of the [[Russian Empire]] consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions.  Many pogroms accompanied the [[Russian Revolution|Revolution of 1917]] and the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215022/anti-Semitism |title=anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>[[Hilary L. Rubinstein]], Daniel C. Cohn-Sherbok, Abraham J. Edelheit, [[William D. Rubinstein]], ''The Jews in the Modern World'', Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref>

During the [[Russian Civil War|civil war era (1917–1922)]] both the Bolsheviks and the Whites employed nationalism and xenophobia as weapons to delegitimise the opposition.<ref>Liudmila G. Novikova, "Red Patriots against White Patriots: Contesting Patriotism in the Civil War in North Russia." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 71.2 (2019): 183–202.</ref>

After World War II official national policy was to bring in students from Communist countries in East Europe and Asia for advanced training in Communist leadership roles. These students encountered severe xenophobia on campus.  They survived by sticking together, but developed a hostility toward the Soviet leadership.<ref>Benjamin Tromly, "Brother or other? East European students in Soviet higher education establishments, 1948–1956." ''European History Quarterly'' 44.1 (2014): 80–102. [https://www.academia.edu/download/44216243/80.full.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Even after the fall of Communism foreign students faced hostility on campus.<ref>Alexander Larin, "Students in Russia (Based on materials of sociological survey)." ''Far Eastern Affairs'' (2009) 37#2 pp 114–137
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In the 2000s, "[[skinheads]]" were especially visible in attacking anything foreign.<ref>Peter Worger, "A mad crowd: Skinhead youth and the rise of nationalism in post-communist Russia." ''Communist and Post-Communist Studies'' 45.3–4 (2012): 269–278.</ref>  Racism against both the Russian citizens ([[peoples of the Caucasus]], [[indigenous peoples of Siberia]] and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, South Asians(Indians,Pakistanis,etc), East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) became a significant factor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |title=Racist Violence, Rhetoric Plague Russia |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018174645/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |archive-date=18 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Using surveys from 1996, 2004, and 2012, Hannah S. Chapman, et al. reports a steady increase in Russians' negative attitudes toward seven outgroups. Muscovites especially became more xenophobic.<ref>Hannah S. Chapman, et al. "Xenophobia on the rise? Temporal and regional trends in xenophobic attitudes in Russia." ''Comparative Politics'' 50.3 (2018): 381–394.</ref> In 2016, [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] reported that "Researchers who track xenophobia in Russia have recorded an "impressive" decrease in hate crimes as the authorities appear to have stepped up pressure on far-right groups".<ref>{{cite news |title=Hate Crimes Said Down In Russia As Kremlin Cracks Down On Nationalist Critics |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-sova-hate-crimes-down-nationalist-crackdown/27562759.html |work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) |date=19 February 2016}}</ref> David Barry uses surveys to investigate the particularistic and xenophobic belief that all citizens should join Russia's dominant Orthodox religion. It is widespread among ethnic Russians and is increasing.<ref>David Barry, "Ethnodoxy, national exceptionalism, and xenophobia: a case study of contemporary Russia." ''National Identities'' 21.3 (2019): 223–239.</ref>

A 2016 [[GlobeScan]]/[[BBC World Service]] poll found that 79% of Russian respondents disapproved of accepting Syrian refugees, the highest percentage out of 18 countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2016 |title=Identity 2016: 'Global citizenship' rising, poll suggests |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-36139904 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211223163742/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-36139904%23comments |archive-date=23 December 2021 |access-date=8 May 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2016 |title=Global Citizenship A Growing Sentiment Among Citizens Of Emerging Economies: Global Poll |url=https://globescan.com/2016/04/27/global-citizenship-a-growing-sentiment-among-citizens-of-emerging-economies-global-poll/ |website=[[GlobeScan]] |language=en-US}}</ref>