Editing Organized crime (section)

==Academic analysis==

===Criminal psychology===
{{main|Criminal psychology}}Criminal psychology is defined as the study of the intentions, behaviors, and actions of a criminal or someone who allows themselves to participate in criminal behavior. The goal is to understand what is going on in the criminal's head and explain why they are doing what they are doing. This varies depending on whether the person is facing the punishment for what they did, are roaming free, or if they are punishing themselves. Criminal psychologists get called to court to explain the inside the mind of the criminal.<ref>[https://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/02/criminal-mindThe criminal mind] Retrieved 6 October  2023</ref><ref>[https://www.simplypsychology.org/biological-theories-crime.html#:~:text=Genetic%20studies%20are%20limited%20because,development%2C%20resulting%20in%20abnormal%20behavior. Psychology » CriminologyBiological Theories Of Crime] Retrieved 6 October  2023</ref>

====Rational choice====
{{main|Rational choice theory (criminology)}}
This theory treats all individuals as rational operators, committing criminal acts after consideration of all associated risks (detection and punishment) compared with the rewards of crimes (personal, financial etc.).<ref>{{cite book |last=Piquero & Tibbetts|title=Rational choice and criminal behavior: recent research and future challenges|date=2002|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajoAGhrfxDAC&q=rational+choice+theory+%22organised+crime%22|isbn=9780815336785}}</ref>  Little emphasis is placed on the offenders' emotional state. The role of criminal organizations in lowering the perceptions of risk and increasing the likelihood of personal benefit is prioritized by this approach, with the organizations structure, purpose, and activity being indicative of the rational choices made by criminals and their organizers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lyman & Potter|title=Organized Crime|date=2007|publisher=Pearson|url=http://wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/media/objects/6904/7070214/CRJ455_Ch02.pdf}}</ref>

====Deterrence====
{{main|Deterrence (psychology)}}
This theory sees criminal behavior as reflective of an individual, internal calculation<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Nagin | first1 = D. S. | last2 = Pogarsky | first2 = G. | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00943.x | title = Integrating Celerity, Impulsivity, and Extralegal Sanction Threats into a Model of General Deterrence: Theory and Evidence* | journal = Criminology | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | pages = 865–892 | year = 2001 }}</ref> by the criminal that the benefits associated with offending (whether financial or otherwise) outweigh the perceived risks.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tullock|title=DOES PUNISHMENT DETER CRIME?|journal=Public Interest|date=1974|volume=36|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=49871|id={{NCJ|49871 }}|access-date=2011-06-07|archive-date=2019-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622185254/https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=49871|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Decker & Kohfeld|journal=Criminology|date=1985|volume=23|issue=3|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.1985.tb00349.x|pages=437–450|title=Crimes, Crime Rates, Arrests, and Arrest Ratios: Implications for Deterrence Theory}}</ref>  The perceived strength, importance or infallibility of the criminal organization is directly proportional to the types of crime committed, their intensity and arguably the level of community response. The benefits of participating in organized crime (higher financial rewards, greater socioeconomic control and influence, protection of the family or significant others, perceived freedoms from 'oppressive' laws or norms) contribute greatly to the psychology behind highly organized group offending.

====Social learning====
{{Main|Social learning theory}}
Criminals learn through associations with one another. The success of organized crime groups is therefore dependent upon the strength of their communication and the enforcement of their value systems, the recruitment and training processes employed to sustain, build or fill gaps in criminal operations.<ref name="Akers 1973">{{cite book|last=Akers|title=DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - A SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH|date=1973|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=27692|id={{NCJ|27692 }}|access-date=2011-06-07|archive-date=2019-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611120706/https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=27692|url-status=dead}}</ref> An understanding of this theory sees close associations between criminals, imitation of superiors, and understanding of value systems, processes and authority as the main drivers behind organized crime. Interpersonal relationships define the motivations the individual develops, with the effect of family or peer criminal activity being a strong predictor of inter-generational offending.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Akers|first=R|title=Self-control as a general theory of crime|journal=Journal of Quantitative Criminology|date=1991|volume=7|issue=2|doi=10.1007/BF01268629|pages=201–211|s2cid=144549679}}</ref>  This theory also developed to include the strengths and weaknesses of reinforcement, which in the context of continuing criminal enterprises may be used to help understand propensities for certain crimes or victims, level of integration into the mainstream culture and likelihood of recidivism / success in rehabilitation.<ref name="Akers 1973"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Akers|first=R|title=Social Learning and Deviant Behavior: A Specific Test of a General Theory|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1979|volume=44|issue=4|jstor=2094592|doi=10.2307/2094592|pmid=389120|pages=636–55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Akers|first=R|title=Social learning and social structure: a general theory of crime and deviance|date=2009|publisher=Transaction Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjBDZ-T0WMgC&q=social+learning+theory+organised+crime|isbn=9781412815765}}</ref>

====Enterprise====
{{main|Enterprise theory (crime)}}
Under this theory, organized crime exists because legitimate markets leave many customers and potential customers unsatisfied.<ref name="Smith1978">{{cite journal |last1=SMITH |first1=D. C. Jr |title=Organized Crime and Entrepreneurship |journal=International Journal of Criminology and Penology |date=1978 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=161–178 |url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=49083 |id={{NCJ|49083}} |access-date=2011-06-07 |archive-date=2019-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620121145/https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=49083 |url-status=dead }}</ref> High demand for a particular good or service (e.g., drugs, prostitution, arms, slaves), low levels of risk detection and high profits lead to a conducive environment for entrepreneurial criminal groups to enter the market and profit by supplying those goods and services.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = Dwight C. |title=Paragons, Pariahs, and Pirates: A Spectrum-Based Theory of Enterprise |  journal = Crime and Delinquency |date= 1980 | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 358–386 | doi = 10.1177/001112878002600306 | issn = 0011-1287 |s2cid=145501061}}</ref>  For success, there must be:
* an identified market; and,
* a certain rate of consumption (demand) to maintain profit and outweigh perceived risks.<ref name="Albanese2008">{{cite journal|last=Albanese|title=Risk Assessment in Organized Crime Developing a Market and Product-Based Model to Determine Threat Levels|journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice|date=2008 |volume=24 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/1043986208318225 |issn = 1043-9862 |s2cid= 146793104}}</ref><ref name="Albanese2000">{{cite journal|last=Albanese|first=J|title=The Causes of Organized Crime: Do Criminals Organize Around Opportunities for Crime or Do Criminal Opportunities Create New Offenders?|journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice|date=2000|volume=16|issue=4|pages=409–423|doi=10.1177/1043986200016004004 | issn = 1043-9862 |s2cid=143793499}}</ref>

Under these conditions competition is discouraged, ensuring criminal monopolies sustain profits. Legal substitution of goods or services may (by increasing competition) force the dynamic of organized criminal operations to adjust, as will deterrence measures (reducing demand), and the restriction of resources (controlling the ability to supply or produce to supply).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith|title=Wickersham to Sutherland to Katzenbach: Evolving an "official" definition for organized crime|journal=Crime, Law and Social Change|date=1991|volume=16|issue=2|pages=135–154|doi=10.1007/BF00227546|s2cid=149631389}}</ref>

====Differential association====
{{main|Differential association}}
Sutherland goes further to say that deviancy is contingent on conflicting groups within society, and that such groups struggle over the means to define what is criminal or deviant within society. Criminal organizations therefore gravitate around illegal avenues of production, profit-making, protectionism or social control and attempt (by increasing their operations or membership) to make these acceptable.<ref name="Akers 1973"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Greek |first=C |title=Differential Association Theory |url=http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/sutherland.html |publisher=Florida State University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303220253/http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/sutherland.html |archive-date=March 3, 2011 |access-date=June 7, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Braithwaite|title=Criminological theory and organizational crime|journal=Justice Quarterly|date=1989|volume=6|issue=3|doi=10.1080/07418828900090251|pages=333–358}}</ref> This also explains the propensity of criminal organizations to develop [[protection racket]]s, to coerce through the use of violence, aggression and threatening behavior (at times termed '[[terrorism]]').<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = COLVIN | first1 = MARK | last2 = CULLEN | first2 = FRANCIS T. | last3 = VANDER VEN | first3 = THOMAS |journal=Criminology |date=2002 |volume=40 |issue=1 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00948.x |pages=19–42 |title= Coercion, Social Support, and Crime: An Emerging Theoretical Consensus | issn = 0011-1384 |id= {{NCJ|194567 }} }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Matsueda|title=Testing Control Theory and Differential Association: A Causal Modeling Approach|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1982|volume=47|issue=4|pages=489–504|jstor=2095194|doi=10.2307/2095194}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Matsueda|title=The Current State of Differential Association Theory|journal=Crime and Delinquency|date=1988|volume=34|issue=3|pages=277–306|doi=10.1177/0011128788034003005|s2cid=146347188}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Matsueda & Heimer|title=Race, Family Structure, and Delinquency: A Test of Differential Association and Social Control Theories|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1987|volume=52|issue=6|pages=826–840|jstor=2095837|doi=10.2307/2095837}}</ref> Preoccupation with methods of accumulating profit highlight the lack of legitimate means to achieve economic or social advantage, as does the organization of [[white-collar crime]] or [[political corruption]] (though it is debatable whether these are based on wealth, power or both). The ability to effect social norms and practices through political and economic influence (and the enforcement or normalization of criminogenic needs) may be defined by differential association theory.

===Critical criminology and sociology===

====Social disorganization====
{{main|Social disorganization theory}}
Social disorganization theory is intended to be applied to neighborhood level street crime,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sampson & Groves|title=Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory|journal=American Journal of Sociology|date=1989|volume=99|issue=4|pages=774–802|jstor=2780858|doi=10.1086/229068|s2cid=144303239|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3226955}}</ref> thus the context of gang activity, loosely formed criminal associations or networks, socioeconomic demographic impacts, legitimate access to public resources, employment or education, and mobility give it relevance to organized crime. Where the upper- and lower-classes live in close proximity this can result in feelings of anger, hostility, social injustice and frustration.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Whyte|first=W|title=Social Organization in the Slums|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1943|volume=8|issue=1|pages=34–39|jstor=2085446|doi=10.2307/2085446}}</ref>  Criminals experience poverty; and witness affluence they are deprived of and which is virtually impossible for them to attain through conventional means.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Toby | first1 = Jackson |title=Social Disorganization and Stake in Conformity: Complementary Factors in the Predatory Behavior of Hoodlums |journal=Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science |date=1957 |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=12–17 |url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/jclc48&div=7&id=&page= |doi=10.2307/1140161 |jstor=1140161  | issn = 0022-0205 }}</ref> The concept of neighborhood is central to this theory, as it defines the social learning, locus of control, cultural influences and access to social opportunity experienced by criminals and the groups they form.<ref>{{cite journal  | last1 = Forrest | first1 = Ray | last2 = Kearns | first2 = Ade |title=Social Cohesion, Social Capital and the Neighborhood|journal=Urban Studies |date=2001 |volume=38 |issue=12 |doi=10.1080/00420980120087081 |pages=2125–2143 | bibcode = 2001UrbSt..38.2125F |s2cid=15252935  | issn = 0042-0980 }}</ref> Fear of or lack of trust in mainstream authority may also be a key contributor to social disorganization; organized crime groups replicate such figures and thus ensure control over the counter-culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hope & Sparks|title=Crime, risk, and insecurity: law and order in everyday life and political discourse|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw8DagPGOakC&q=%22social+disorganisation%22+%22organised+crime%22|isbn=9780415243438}}</ref> This theory has tended to view violent or antisocial behavior by gangs as reflective of their social disorganization rather than as a product or tool of their organization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldson|title=Youth in Crisis?: Gangs, Territoriality and Violence|date=2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xw0Cj-Mdxh4C&q=youth+in+crisis+goldson+2011|isbn=9780203832004}}</ref>

====Anomie====
{{main|Anomie}}
Sociologist [[Robert K. Merton]] believed deviance depended on society's definition of success,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Merton|first=R|title=Social Structure and Anomie|journal=American Sociological Review|date=1938|volume=3|issue=5|pages=672–682|jstor=2084686|doi=10.2307/2084686}}</ref> and the desires of individuals to achieve success through socially defined avenues. Criminality becomes attractive when expectations of being able to fulfill goals (therefore achieving success) by legitimate means cannot be fulfilled.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hagan | first = J |author2=McCarthy B |chapter=Anomie, social capital and street criminology| isbn = 1-55553-321-3  | pages = 124–41 | title =The future of anomie|date=1997| publisher = Northeastern University Press }}</ref> Criminal organizations capitalize on states with a lack of norm by imposing criminogenic needs and illicit avenues to achieve them. This has been used as the basis for numerous meta-theories of organized crime through its integration of social learning, cultural deviance, and criminogenic motivations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Aniskiewicz|first=R|title=Metatheoretical Issues in the Study of Organized Crime|journal=Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice|date=1994|volume=10|issue=4|pages=314–324|doi=10.1177/104398629401000405|s2cid=143150051}}</ref> If crime is seen as a function of anomie,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Powell|first=E|title=Crime as a function of anomie|journal=The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science |date=1966 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=161–171|jstor=1141290|doi=10.2307/1141290}}</ref> organized behavior produces stability, increases protection or security, and may be directly proportional to market forces as expressed by entrepreneurship- or risk-based approaches. It is the inadequate supply of legitimate opportunities that constrains the ability for the individual to pursue valued societal goals and reduces the likelihood that using legitimate opportunities will enable them to satisfy such goals (due to their position in society).<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Baumer | first1 = E. P. | last2 = Gustafson | first2 = R. | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00090.x | title = Social Organization and Instrumental Crime: Assessing the Empirical Validity of Classic and Contemporary Anomie Theories | journal = Criminology | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 617–663 | year = 2007 }}</ref>

====Cultural deviance====
Criminals violate the law because they belong to a unique subculture - the counter-culture - their values and norms conflicting with those of the working-, middle- or upper-classes upon which criminal laws are based. This subculture shares an alternative lifestyle, language and culture, and is generally typified by being tough, taking care of their own affairs and rejecting government authority. Role models include drug dealers, thieves and pimps, as they have achieved success and wealth not otherwise available through socially-provided opportunities. It is through modeling organized crime as a counter-cultural avenue to success that such organizations are sustained.<ref name="Akers 1973"/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Akers | first1 = R. L. | title = Is Differential Association/social Learning Cultural Deviance Theory?* | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01204.x | journal = Criminology | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 229–247 | year = 1996 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Agnew | first1 = R. | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x | title = Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency* | journal = Criminology | volume = 30 | pages = 47–88 | year = 1992 | s2cid = 144126837 }}</ref>

====Alien conspiracy/queer ladder of mobility====
{{main|Jewish-American organized crime}}
The alien conspiracy theory and queer ladder of mobility theories state that ethnicity and 'outsider' status (immigrants, or those not within the dominant ethnocentric groups) and their influences are thought to dictate the prevalence of organized crime in society.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/search|title=Virtual Library Search|website=Office of Justice Programs}}</ref>  The alien theory posits that the contemporary structures of organized crime gained prominence during the 1860s in [[Sicily]] and that elements of the Sicilian population are responsible for the foundation of most European and North American organized crime,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lyman & Potter|title=Organized Crime and the Drug Trade (From Drugs and Society: Causes, Concepts and Control)|journal=Criminal Justice Policy Review|date=2011|volume=22|issue=2|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=177133|id={{NCJ|177133}}|access-date=2011-06-07|archive-date=2018-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613184254/https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=177133|url-status=dead}}</ref> made up of Italian-dominated crime families. Bell's theory of the 'queer ladder of mobility' hypothesized that '[[Ethnic succession theory|ethnic succession]]' (the attainment of power and control by one more marginalized ethnic group over other less marginalized groups) occurs by promoting the perpetration of criminal activities within a disenfranchised or oppressed demographic. Whilst early organized crime was dominated by the [[Irish Mob]] (early 1800s), they were relatively substituted by the [[Sicilian Mafia]] and [[Italian-American Mafia]], the [[Aryan Brotherhood]] (1960s onward), Colombian [[Medellín Cartel]] and [[Cali cartel]] (mid-1970s - 1990s), and more recently the Mexican [[Tijuana Cartel]] (late 1980s onward), Mexican [[Los Zetas]] (late 1990s to onward), the [[Russian Mafia]] (1988 onward), terrorism-related organized crime [[Al-Qaeda]] (1988 onward), the [[Taliban]] (1994 onward), and [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL) (2010s to onward). Many argue this misinterprets and overstates the role of ethnicity in organized crime.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bovenkerk|title=Organized crime and ethnic reputation manipulation|journal=Crime, Law and Social Change|date=2003|volume=39|issue=1|doi=10.1023/A:1022499504945|pages=23–38|s2cid=140412285}}</ref>  A contradiction of this theory is that syndicates had developed long before large-scale Sicilian immigration in the 1860s, with these immigrants merely joining a widespread phenomenon of crime and corruption.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schloenhart|first=A|title=Organized crime and the business of migrant trafficking|journal=Crime, Law and Social Change|date=1999|volume=32|issue=3|doi=10.1023/A:1008340427104|pages=203–233|s2cid=151997349}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Paoli|title=The paradoxes of organized crime|journal=Crime, Law and Social Change|date=2002|volume=37|issue=1|doi=10.1023/A:1013355122531|pages=51–97|s2cid=153414741|url=https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/202701}} {{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dwight|title=Mafia: The Prototypical Alien Conspiracy|journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|date=1976|volume=423|issue=1|pages=75–88|doi=10.1177/000271627642300108|s2cid=145638748}}</ref>