Editing Islamic philosophy (section)

== Later Islamic philosophy ==

The death of [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd (Averroës)]] effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the ''[[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic Arabic School]]'', and philosophical activity declined significantly in western Islamic countries, namely in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and [[North Africa]], though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular [[Iran]] and [[India]]. Contrary to the traditional view, [[Dimitri Gutas]] and the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the true "[[Golden Age]]" of Arabic and Islamic philosophy, initiated by [[Al-Ghazali]]'s successful integration of [[Logic in Islamic philosophy|logic]] into the [[Madrasah]] curriculum and the subsequent rise of [[Avicennism]].<ref name=Stanford>{{cite encyclopedia |author=Tony Street |title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=July 23, 2008 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language |access-date=2008-12-05}}</ref>

Since the political power shift in Western Europe ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) from Muslim to Christian control, the Muslims naturally did not practice philosophy in Western Europe. This also led to some loss of contact between the 'west' and the 'east' of the Islamic world. Muslims in the 'east' continued to do philosophy, as is evident from the works of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] scholars and especially those living in Muslim kingdoms within the territories of present-day Iran and India, such as Shah Waliullah and [[Ahmad Sirhindi]]. This fact has escaped most pre-modern historians of Islamic (or Arabic) philosophy. In addition, logic has continued to be taught in religious seminaries up to modern times.

After Ibn Rushd, there arose many later schools of Islamic Philosophy such as those founded by [[Ibn Arabi]] and Shi'ite [[Mulla Sadra]]. These new schools are of particular importance, as they are still active in the Islamic world. The most important among them are:
* [[Illuminationist philosophy|School of Illumination]] (''Hikmat al-Ishraq'')
* [[Transcendent Theosophy]] (''Hikmat Muta'aliah'')
* [[Sufi philosophy]]
* [[Traditionalist School]]
* Avicennism(Hikmat Sinavi)

===Illuminationist school===
{{Main|Illuminationist philosophy}}
[[Illuminationist philosophy]] was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]] in the 12th century. This school is a combination of [[Avicenna]]'s philosophy and ancient [[Iranian philosophy]], with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by [[Neoplatonism]].

In [[logic in Islamic philosophy]], systematic refutations of [[Organon|Greek logic]] were written by the [[Illuminationist philosophy|Illuminationist school]], founded by [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]] (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of [[logic]]al philosophical speculation.<ref>[http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp Science and Muslim Scientists] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020090525/http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp |date=2007-10-20 }}, Islam Herald</ref>

===Transcendent school===
{{Main|Transcendent theosophy}}
[[Transcendent theosophy]] is the school of Islamic philosophy founded by [[Mulla Sadra]] in the 17th century. His philosophy and [[ontology]] is considered to be just as important to Islamic philosophy as [[Martin Heidegger]]'s philosophy later was to [[Western philosophy]] in the 20th century. Mulla Sadra bought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of [[reality]]" and created "a major transition from [[essentialism]] to [[existentialism]]" in Islamic philosophy, several centuries before this occurred in Western philosophy.<ref name="Kamal">{{cite book |title=Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy |first=Muhammad |last=Kamal |year=2006 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=0-7546-5271-8 |pages=9, 39}}</ref>

The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina (Avicenna)]]<ref name="Irwin">{{Cite journal|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}}</ref> and his school of [[Avicennism]] as well as [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]]<ref name="Razavi 1997 129"/> and his [[Illuminationist philosophy]]. The opposite idea of "[[Existence precedes essence]]" was thus developed in the works of [[Averroes]]<ref name="Irwin"/> and [[Mulla Sadra]]<ref>{{Harvp|Razavi|1997|p=130}}</ref> as a reaction to this idea and is a key foundational concept of [[existentialism]].

For Mulla Sadra, "existence precedes the essence and is thus principle since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This is primarily the argument that lies at the heart of Mulla Sadra's [[Transcendent Theosophy]]. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani later summarized Mulla Sadra's concept as follows:<ref>{{Harvp|Razavi|1997|pp=129–30}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|The existent being that has an essence must then be caused and existence that is pure existence ... is therefore a Necessary Being.}}

More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological]] methods of investigation in [[ontology]] (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with [[Heidegger]]'s thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.<ref>For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: [[Nader El-Bizri]], ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); and [[Nader El-Bizri]], 'Avicenna and Essentialism', ''Review of Metaphysics'' 54 (2001), 753–78; and [[Nader El-Bizri]], 'Avicenna's De Anima Between Aristotle and Husserl', in ''The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), 67–89</ref>

===Contemporary Islamic philosophy===
{{Main|Contemporary Islamic philosophy}}
[[File:Iqbal.jpg|thumb|205px|right|{{nowrap|[[Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] (1877–1938)}} Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from Pakistan (then [[British Raj|British India]]).]]
[[File:Hossein nasr.jpg|thumb|205px|right|{{nowrap|[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] (born 1933)}} is one of the leading Muslim philosophers of the contemporary world.<ref name="Azad 2014">{{cite web | last=Azad | first=Hasan | title=Why are there no Muslim philosophers? - Opinions | website=Al Jazeera | date=2014-06-12 | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/6/12/why-are-there-no-muslim-philosophers | access-date=2023-03-31}}</ref>]]

The tradition of Islamic philosophy is still very much alive today, particularly among followers of [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi|Suhrawardi]]'s ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (''Illumination Philosophy'') and [[Mulla Sadra]]'s ''Hikmat-e-Mota'aliye'' (''Transcendent Theosophy''). Another figure is [[Muhammad Iqbal]], who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy among the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century.<ref>[http://www.allamaiqbal.com/ Allama Muhammad Iqbal]</ref> His ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]''&nbsp;<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/ |title = The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam}}</ref> is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

In contemporary Islamic regions, the teaching of ''hikmat'' or ''[[hikmah]]'' has continued to flourish.
*[[Abdolkarim Soroush]], born 1945, Iranian philosopher and religious reformist, exponent of [[Kantian]] categories within Islamic thought.{{Sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 6a|2003}}
* [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], founder of the Islamic Republic of [[Iran]], was a teacher of the philosophical school of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya. Before the Islamic Revolution, he was one of the few who formally taught philosophy at the Religious Seminary at Qom.
* [[Abdollah Javadi-Amoli]], Grand Ayatollah is an Iranian [[Twelver]] Shi'a [[Marja'|Marja]]. He is a conservative Iranian politician and one of the prominent Islamic scholars of the [[Hawza]] (seminary) in [[Qom]].{{sfn|Dahlén|loc=chpt. 5|2003}}
* [[Ahmad Milad Karimi]], Afghan philosopher of religion and professor of Islamic Philosophy at the University of Münster in Germany.
* [[Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi]], Grand Ayatollah is an Iranian [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]] cleric. Advocate of Islamic philosophy, particularly Hikmat Mutaliyyah.
* [[Geydar Dzhemal]], Russian Islamic philosopher, author of ''Orientation - North.'' Founding ideologist of Islamic Marxism.
* [[Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i]], Grand Ayatollah, Iranian [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]] cleric (''[[Allameh Tabatabaei]]''), author of numerous works including the 27-volume Quranic commentary ''al-Mizan'' ({{lang|fa|{{big|الميزان}}}}).
* [[Hamka]] or Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah was a prominent Indonesian author, [[Ulema]] politician, philosophical thinker, and author of Tafir Al Azhar. He was head of Indonesia's [[mufti]] council (MUI). He resigned when his [[fatwa]] against the celebration of Christmas by Muslims was condemned by the [[Suharto]] regime. Highly respected in his country, he was also appreciated in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
* [[Murtaza Motahhari]], the best student of [[Allamah Tabatabai]], a martyr of the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979, and author of numerous books (an incomplete compilation of his works comprises 25 volumes). He, like his teachers [[Allama Tabatabai]] and Ayatollah Khomeini, belong to the philosophical schools of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya
* [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]], who is credited with creating modern [[Islamist]] political thought in the 20th century, was the founder of [[Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan|Jamaat-e-Islami]] and spent his life attempting to revive the Islamic intellectual tradition.
* [[Israr Ahmed]], (1932–2010) was a Pakistani Islamic theologian followed particularly in [[South Asia]] and also among the South Asian diaspora in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. Founder of the [[Tanzeem-e-islami]], an offshoot of the Jamaat-e-Islami, he was significant scholar of Islam and the Quran.
* [[Muhammad Hamidullah]] (1908–2002) belonged to a family of scholars, [[jurist]]s, [[writer]]s and [[sufi]]s. He was a world-renowned [[scholar]] of [[Islam]] and [[international law]] from [[India]], who was known for contributions to the research of the history of [[Hadith]], translations of the [[Koran]], the advancement of golden age [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic learning]], and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the [[Western world]].
* [[Fazlur Rahman Malik|Fazlur Rahman]] was professor of Islamic thought at the [[University of Chicago]].
* [[Wahid Hasyim]] first Indonesian minister of religious affairs. Former head of Indonesian Nahdwatul Ulema, and founder of Islamic state universities in Indonesia. He is best known for reformation of the [[Madrasah]] curriculum.
* [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] is a major [[perennial philosophy|perennialist]] thinker. His works are characterized by a persistent critique of modern sciences as well as a defense of Islamic and perennialist doctrines and principles. He argues that [[Desacralization of knowledge|knowledge has been desacralized]] in the [[Human history#Modern history|modern period]], that is, separated from its divine source—God—and calls for its [[Resacralization of knowledge|resacralization]] through [[Tradition (perennialism)|sacred traditions]] and [[Scientia sacra|sacred science]].
* [[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi]] is a well-known [[Pakistani people|Pakistani]] [[Islamic scholar]], [[exegete]], and [[educator]]. A former member of the Jamaat-e-Islami, who extended the work of his tutor, [[Amin Ahsan Islahi]].
* In [[Malaysia]], [[Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas]] is a prominent metaphysical thinker.
* [[Ali Shariati]] Iranian revolutionary thinker and sociologist who focused on [[Marxism]] and Islam.
* [[Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri]] (born 1942) is a Saudi Arabian [[polymath]] primarily focused on the reconciliation of reason and [[Divine revelation|revelation]].
* [[Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr]] (died 1980) was an Iraqi Shi'ite Grand Ayatollah and one of the most influential Islamic philosophers of the 20th century. His two most important contributions to philosophy are his books "Our Philosophy" and "[[The Logical Foundations of Induction]]." He is also widely known for his work on economics, including "[[Iqtisaduna|Our Economics]]" and "The Non-Usury Banking System" which are two of the most influential works in contemporary Islamic economics.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==== Contemporary perspectives ====
In the contemporary era, some people like the Ali Shariati have considered Islamic philosophy as realism;<ref>{{cite web |publisher=پژوهشگاه علوم انسانی و مطالعات فرهنگی |title=نهضت خداپرستان سوسیالیست |url=http://www.ensani.ir/fa/content/11479/default.aspx |language=Persian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://rooziato.com/1397157268/%D8%AF%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C/ | title=دکتر علی شریعتی | date=19 June 2018 }}</ref> But there is also a belief that Islam is beyond all of (other) "isms".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://farsnews.ir/razavi/news/13990415001044/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7 | title=Fars &#124; اسلام فراتر از همه «ایسم»ها }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://borna.news/fa/news/1024801/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%87%D9%85%D9%87-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85-%D9%87%D8%A7 | title=اسلام، فراتر از همه" ایسم" ها }}</ref>