Editing Reformation (section)

== Reformation outside Germany ==
The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries.

=== Nordic countries ===
{{See also|Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein|Religion in Iceland#The Reformation|Religion in Norway#From Reformation to 1964|Religion in Sweden#Lutheran Reformation|Reformation in Sweden}}
[[File:Henrik sormi.JPG|thumb|The seal of the [[Bishopric of Turku|Diocese of Turku]] (Finland) during the 16th and 17th centuries featured the finger of St Henry. The post-Reformation diocese included the relic of a pre-Reformation saint in its seal.|alt=]]

All of [[Scandinavia]] ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith.

==== Iceland ====
{{Main|Icelandic Reformation}}
[[Martin Luther|Luther]]'s influence had already reached [[Iceland]] before King Christian's decree. The [[Germans]] fished near Iceland's coast, and the [[Hanseatic League]] engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. These Germans raised a Lutheran church in [[Hafnarfjörður]] as early as 1533. Through German trade connections, many young [[Icelanders]] studied in [[Hamburg]].{{sfn|Hjálmarsson|1993|p=69}} In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop [[Ögmundur]] and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy".{{sfn|Hjálmarsson|1993|p=70}} In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, [[Klaus von Mervitz]], with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property.{{sfn|Hjálmarsson|1993|p=70}} Von Mervitz seized a monastery in [[Viðey]] with the help of his sheriff, [[Dietrich of Minden]], and his soldiers. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by Ögmundur.

=== Great Britain ===
==== England ====
{{Main|English Reformation}}
{{See|Edwardian Reformation}}
The [[English Reformation]] is a complex historical series of events and reversals, whose nature and effect has been debated by historians.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Redworth |first1=Glyn |title=Whatever happened to the English Reformation? |journal=History Today |date=October 1987 |volume=37 |pages=29–36}}</ref><ref name=peeps>{{cite journal |last1=Konkola |first1=Kari |last2=MacCulloch |first2=Diarmaid |title=People of the Book: Success in the English Reformation |journal=History Today |date=October 2003 |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=23–29}}</ref>{{rp|23}} The results of the reformation included an [[established church]] with a "Prayer Book consciously aligned with Swiss theology,...(but) the most elaborate liturgy of any Protestant Church in Europe" practiced in Cathedrals, with plain, sermon-centred services in parish churches,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacCulloch |first1=Diarmaid |title=The myth of the English reformation |journal=History Today |date=July 1991 |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=28–35}}</ref>{{rp|30}} politically imposed by a "literate Protestant elite".<ref name=peeps/>{{rp|28}}

According to political historian Gregory Slysz "The dissolution of the monasteries [...] brought social catastrophe to England" for the next 50 or so years, due to the closure of the numerous associated urban almshouses for poor relief and hospitals, worsened by spiraling inflation and a doubling of the population.<ref name=slysz>{{cite journal |last1=Slysz |first1=Gregory |title=The impact of the dissolution of Westminster Abbey on the provision of social welfare, c. 1540-1600 |journal=American Benedictine Review |date=2018}}</ref> Popular revolts by grassroots Catholics against the changes, such as the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] in the South and the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] and [[Bigod's rebellion]] in the North, were ruthlessly put down by government forces with the loss of thousands of lives.
===== English North America =====
{{Main|History of the Puritans in North America}}
The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|colony of Massachusetts]] in New England, which later became one of the original United States. These Puritan separatists were also known as "the [[Pilgrim Fathers|Pilgrims]]". After establishing a colony at [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]] (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the [[King of England]] that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of [[mercantilism]]. 

The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681.<ref name="Barnett">{{cite book |last=Barnett |first=James Harwood |year=1984 |title=The American Christmas: A Study in National Culture |publisher=Ayer Publishing |isbn=978-0-405-07671-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-sRH9skUh6oC&q=Christmas+Puritan+New+England&pg=PA2 |page=3}}</ref> The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor [[Edmund Andros]], who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.<ref name="Barnett"/> Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marling |first=Karal Ann |year=2000 |title=Merry Christmas!: Celebrating America's Greatest Holiday |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00318-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUc13_ourtYC&q=Christmas+Puritan+New+England&pg=PA44 |page=44}}</ref>

==== Wales ====
{{Further|History of Wales#Early modern period}}
Bishop [[Richard Davies (bishop)|Richard Davies]] and dissident Protestant cleric [[John Penry]] introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. In 1588, the Bishop of Llandaff published the entire Bible in the [[Welsh language]]. The translation had a significant impact upon the Welsh population and helped to firmly establish Protestantism among the [[Welsh people]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.churchinwales.org.uk/life/heritage/a-wonderful-inheritance/5-the-protestant-reformation/ |title=The Church in Wales: The Protestant Reformation |access-date=21 April 2017 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922111036/https://www.churchinwales.org.uk/life/heritage/a-wonderful-inheritance/5-the-protestant-reformation/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Welsh Protestants used the model of the [[Synod of Dort]] of 1618–1619. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' [[Calvinistic Methodist]] movement. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before the mid-19th century.<ref>D. Densil Morgan, "Calvinism in Wales: c. 1590–1909," ''Welsh Journal of Religious History'' (2009), Vol. 4, pp.&nbsp;22–36</ref>

==== Scotland ====
{{main|Scottish Reformation|Church of Scotland|Presbyterianism}}
[[File:John Knox preaching.JPG|thumb|[[John Knox]] was a leading figure in the Scottish Reformation]]

The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along [[Reformed theology|reformed]] lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. [[John Knox]] is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation.

The [[Scottish Reformation Parliament|Reformation Parliament]] of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the ''[[Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560]]'', forbade the celebration of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and approved a [[Protestant]] [[Confession of Faith]]. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the [[regent]] [[Mary of Guise]], who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] (then also [[Queen consort|Queen]] of France).

Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between [[Presbyterianism]] (particularly the [[Covenanter]]s) and [[Anglicanism|Episcopalianism]]. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the [[Church of Scotland]], which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Episcopalian minority]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wormald|first=Jenny|title=Court, kirk, and community: Scotland, 1470–1625|date=1991 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0-7486-0276-3|location=Edinburgh|oclc=26132044}}</ref>

=== France ===
{{main|Massacre of Mérindol|Huguenot|Reformed Church of France|French Wars of Religion}}

Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's [[Edict of Fontainebleau]] (1685), which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France, leading some Huguenots to live as [[Nicodemite]]s.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=AMdQCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA395 Nicodemism]", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000.</ref> In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, [[Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg]] declared the [[Edict of Potsdam]] (October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees and tax-free status to them for ten years.

In the late 17th century, 150,000–200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies.<ref>''1685 and the French Revolution'', Andrew Jainchill, ''The French Revolution in Global Perspective'', ed. Suzanne Desan, Lynn Hunt, and William Max Nelson, (Cornell University Press, 2013), 57.</ref> A significant community in France remained in the [[Cévennes]] region. A separate Protestant community, of the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] faith, existed in the newly conquered province of [[Alsace]], its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau.

=== Spain ===
{{Main|History of Spain#Phillip II and the wars of religion|Protestantism in Spain}}
{{multiple image
 | align = right
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 | image1 = Francisco de Enzinas-Nuevo Testamento.001.jpg
 | caption1 = The New Testament translated by Francisco de Enzinas into the [[Spanish language]] (Castilian), published in [[Antwerp]] (1543)

 | image2 = Leizarraga biblia 01.png
 | caption2 = The New Testament translated by [[Joanes Leizarraga]] into the [[Basque language]] (1571) on the orders of Navarre's Calvinist queen, [[Jeanne III of Navarre]]
}}

In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. Spain, which had only recently managed to complete the reconquest of the Peninsula from the [[Moors]] in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish populations of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in 1478. The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly persecuting any new movement that the leaders of the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy.{{sfn|Pettegree|2000a|p=304}} [[Emperor Charles V|Charles V]] did not wish to see Spain or the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in light of continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Catholic Church reform itself from within. This led to a [[Counter-Reformation]] in Spain in the 1530s. During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. As early as 1521, the Pope had written a letter to the Spanish monarchy warning against allowing the unrest in Northern Europe to be replicated in Spain. Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited.

[[File:Contemporary illustration of the Auto-da-fe held at Validolid Spain 21-05-1559..jpg|thumb|Contemporary illustration of the [[auto-da-fé]] of [[Valladolid]], in which fourteen Protestants were burned at the stake for their faith, on 21 May 1559|alt=]]

Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as [[Seville]] and [[Valladolid]] adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible.{{sfn|Estep|1986|p=299}} Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of [[Erasmus]]. Notable reformers included Juan Gil and Juan Pérez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as [[Francisco de Enzinas]] to translate the Greek [[New Testament]] into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julián Hernández, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Under [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. On May 21, 1559, sixteen Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake; 14 were strangled before being burnt, while two were burnt alive. In October another 30 were executed. Spanish Protestants who were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe, such as [[Geneva]], where some of them embraced [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] teachings. Those who fled to England were given support by the [[Church of England]].{{Citation needed|date= March 2021}}

The [[Kingdom of Navarre]], although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French [[Huguenot]] monarchs, including [[Henry IV of France]] and his mother, [[Jeanne III of Navarre]], a devout Calvinist.

Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some [[Basques]] through the translation of the Bible into the [[Basque language]] by [[Joanes Leizarraga]]. As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the [[New Testament]] into Basque{{refn|group=note|See the wikipedia entry on [[Joanes Leizarraga]], the priest who did the translation. His manuscript is considered to be a cornerstone in Basque literature, and a pioneering attempt towards Basque language standardization.}} and [[Béarnese language|Béarnese]] for the benefit of her subjects.

=== Italy ===
{{further|Reformation in Italy|Girolamo Savonarola}}
[[File:Waldenser-Wappen.jpg|thumb|upright|Waldensian symbol ''Lux lucet in tenebris'' ("Light glows in the darkness")]]

Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out and suppressing heresy, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No-one made a new Protestant translation of the Bible into Italian to compete with the existing Catholic vernacular translations; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed, or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.<ref name=McCulloch401>MacCulloch ''Reformation'' pp.&nbsp;401–417</ref>{{sfn|Firpo|2004|p=169 ff}}

Some Protestants left Italy and became notable activists of the Eastern European Reformation, mainly in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (e.g. [[Giorgio Biandrata]], [[Bernardino Ochino]], Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, [[Fausto Sozzini]], [[Francesco Stancaro]] and [[Giovanni Valentino Gentile]] some of whom propagated [[Nontrinitarianism]] there and were chief instigators of the movement of [[Polish Brethren]].<ref name=Church457>Church "Literature of the Italian reformation" ''Journal of Modern History'' pp.&nbsp;457–473</ref>) Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including [[Peter Vermigli]].

In 1532, the [[Waldensians]], who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology. The [[Waldensian Evangelical Church|Waldensian Church]] survived in the [[Western Alps]] through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.{{sfn|Cameron|1984}}{{page needed|date=March 2015}}

=== Slovenia ===
{{Main|Religion in Slovenia#Protestantism}}
[[File:Primoz-Trubar (rotated).jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Primož Trubar]], a Lutheran reformer in Slovenia]]

[[Primož Trubar]] is notable for consolidating the [[Slovene language]] and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality.<ref name="Voglar I">{{cite news |url=http://www.locutio.si/index.php?no=42&clanek=990 |title=Primož Trubar v enciklopedijah in leksikonih I |language=sl |trans-title=Primož Trubar in Encyclopedias and Lexicons I |journal=Locutio |volume=11 |issue=42 |date=30 May 2008 |first=Dušan |last=Voglar |access-date=7 February 2011 |publisher=Maribor Literary Society}}</ref> He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the [[Slovene Lands]], as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, ''[[Catechismus]]'' and ''[[Abecedarium (Trubar)|Abecedarium]]'', were written by Trubar.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.srl.si/sql_pdf/SRL_2013_4_01.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.srl.si/sql_pdf/SRL_2013_4_01.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Nova odkritja o slovenski protestantiki |language=sl|trans-title=New Discoveries About the Slovene Protestant Literature |first=Kozma |last=Ahačič |journal=Slavistična Revija |volume=61 |date=2013 |issue=4 |pages=543–555}}</ref>

=== Greece ===
{{Main|Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece (1453–1821)}}
The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1629 with the publishing of the ''Confessio'' (Calvinistic doctrine) in [[Geneva]]. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the [[East–West Schism|historical rivalry]] and mistrust between the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and the Catholic Churches along with their concerns of [[Jesuit]] priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the [[Counter-Reformation]] to the Greek populace. He subsequently sponsored [[Maximos of Gallipoli]]'s [[Bible translations into Greek|translation of the New Testament]] into the [[Modern Greek language]] and it was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and [[Synod of Iași]] (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by [[Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem|Dositheos]], they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines.

In 2019, [[Christos Yannaras]] told [[Norman Russell (theologian)|Norman Russell]] that although he had participated in the [[Zoë movement]], he had come to regard it as [[Crypto-Protestant]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Metaphysics as a Personal Adventure, by Norman Russell |url=https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2019/4-january/books-arts/book-reviews/metaphysics-as-a-personal-adventure-by-norman-russell |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=www.churchtimes.co.uk}}</ref>