Editing History of science (section)

====Translations of Greek and Arabic sources====
Contact with the Byzantine Empire,<ref name=Lindberg1992p162/> and with the Islamic world during the [[Reconquista]] and the [[Crusades]], allowed Latin Europe access to scientific [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] texts, including the works of [[Aristotle]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Isidore of Miletus]], [[John Philoponus]], [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]], [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī|al-Khwarizmi]], [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhazen]], [[Avicenna]], and [[Averroes]]. European scholars had access to the translation programs of [[Raymond of Toledo]], who sponsored the 12th century [[Toledo School of Translators]] from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like [[Michael Scotus]] would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translation and propagation of these texts]] and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum,<ref>Huff, Toby. ''Rise of early modern science'' 2nd ed. pp. 180–181</ref> with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."<ref>Grant, Edward. "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed., ''Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300–1700'', Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68</ref>

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by [[Scholasticism|scholastics]] such as [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Roger Bacon]], [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Duns Scotus]]. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his ''[[Opus Majus]]''. [[Pierre Duhem]]'s thesis is that [[Stephen Tempier]] – the Bishop of Paris – [[Condemnation of 1277]] led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277".<ref name="Stanford">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |title=Condemnation of 1277 |first=Hans |last=Thijssen |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=30 January 2003 |access-date=14 September 2009 |publisher=[[University of Stanford]] |archive-date=11 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311030803/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rediscovering the Science of the Middle Ages |url=http://biologos.org/blog/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301161246/https://biologos.org/articles/rediscovering-the-science-of-the-middle-ages |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=26 October 2014 |publisher=BioLogos}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|title=023-A03: The Middle Ages and the Birth of Science – International Catholic University|work=International Catholic University|access-date=26 October 2014|archive-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026061525/http://icucourses.com/pages/023-a03-the-middle-ages-and-the-birth-of-science|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=History: A medieval multiverse|volume=507|issue=7491|pages=161–163|journal=Nature News & Comment|doi=10.1038/507161a|pmid=24627918|year=2014|last1=McLeish|first1=Tom C. B.|author-link1=Tom McLeish|last2=Bower|first2=Richard G.|last3=Tanner |first3=Brian K.|last4=Smithson|first4=Hannah E.|last5=Panti|first5=Cecilia|last6=Lewis|first6=Neil|last7=Gasper|first7=Giles E.M.|url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|access-date=15 July 2019|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723044419/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/16743/1/16743.pdf|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>