Editing Meditation (section)

== Secular applications ==

=== Psychotherapy ===
{{see also|Analytic psychology|Psychoanalysis}}
[[Carl Jung]] (1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.<ref>C. G. Jung, "Yoga and the West" (1936), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref><ref>C. G. Jung, "Forward to [[D. T. Suzuki|Suzuki]]'s ''[[An Introduction to Zen Buddhism]]''", (1939), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref> He clearly advocated ways to increase the conscious [[awareness]] of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.<ref>C. G. Jung, "The psychology of eastern meditation" (1943), ''Collected Works'' v.11.</ref><ref>[[V. Walter Odajnyk]], ''Gathering the Light. A psychology of meditation'' (Shambhala 1993), pp. 18-21.</ref> [[Erich Fromm]] (1900–1980) later explored [[spiritual practice]]s of the east.<ref>Erich Fromm, ''Zen Buddhism and psychoanalysis'' (1960).</ref>

=== Clinical ===
{{see also|Mindfulness#Applications|l1=Mindfulness applications|Mindfulness-based stress reduction|l2=Mindfulness-based stress reduction|Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy|l3=Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy|Mindfulness-based pain management|l4=Mindfulness-based pain management|}}

Since the 1970s, [[clinical psychology]] and [[psychiatry]] have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.<ref name=Harrington2015>{{cite journal |last1=Harrington |first1=Anne |last2=Dunne |first2=John D. |title=When mindfulness is therapy: Ethical qualms, historical perspectives |journal=American Psychologist |date=2015 |volume=70 |issue=7 |pages=621–631 |doi=10.1037/a0039460 |pmid=26436312 |s2cid=43129186 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:25757884 |access-date=2017-06-03 |archive-date=2021-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220174512/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/25757884 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducing [[depression (mood)|depression]], and helping to alleviate stress, and [[anxiety]].<ref name=goyal/><ref name=Strauss>{{cite journal |last1=Strauss |first1=Clara |last2=Cavanagh |first2=Kate |last3=Oliver |first3=Annie |last4=Pettman |first4=Danelle |title=Mindfulness-Based Interventions for People Diagnosed with a Current Episode of an Anxiety or Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials |journal=PLOS ONE |date=24 April 2014 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e96110 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096110 |pmid=24763812 |pmc=3999148 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...996110S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Khoury2015>{{cite journal |last1=Khoury |first1=Bassam |last2=Sharma |first2=Manoj |last3=Rush |first3=Sarah E. |last4=Fournier |first4=Claude |title=Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research |date=June 2015 |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=519–528 |doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009 |pmid=25818837 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pascoe |first1=Michaela C. |last2=Thompson |first2=David R. |last3=Ski |first3=Chantal F. |date=July 2020 |title=Meditation and Endocrine Health and Wellbeing |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32037024/ |journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=469–477 |doi=10.1016/j.tem.2020.01.012 |issn=1879-3061 |pmid=32037024}}</ref> Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction including [[drug addiction]], although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.<ref name=stetka/><ref name=Chiesa>{{cite journal |last1=Chiesa |first1=Alberto |last2=Serretti |first2=Alessandro |title=Are Mindfulness-Based Interventions Effective for Substance Use Disorders? A Systematic Review of the Evidence |journal=Substance Use & Misuse |date=16 April 2014 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=492–512 |doi=10.3109/10826084.2013.770027 |pmid=23461667 |s2cid=34990668 }}</ref>

The US [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] states that ''"Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids."'' However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that, ''"results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."''<ref name="NIH2">{{Cite web |title=Meditation and Mindfulness: What You Need To Know |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation-and-mindfulness-what-you-need-to-know |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=NCCIH |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314064803/https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation-and-mindfulness-what-you-need-to-know |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-term [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management, [[anxiety]], [[depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name="Goyal">{{cite journal |last1=Goyal |first1=Madhav |last2=Singh |first2=Sonal |last3=Sibinga |first3=Erica M. S. |last4=Gould |first4=Neda F. |last5=Rowland-Seymour |first5=Anastasia |last6=Sharma |first6=Ritu |last7=Berger |first7=Zackary |last8=Sleicher |first8=Dana |last9=Maron |first9=David D. |last10=Shihab |first10=Hasan M. |last11=Ranasinghe |first11=Padmini D. |last12=Linn |first12=Shauna |last13=Saha |first13=Shonali |last14=Bass |first14=Eric B. |last15=Haythornthwaite |first15=Jennifer A. |title=Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Internal Medicine |date=1 March 2014 |volume=174 |issue=3 |pages=357–368 |doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018 |pmid=24395196 |pmc=4142584 }}</ref> In 2017, the [[American Heart Association]] issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable [[Adjuvant therapy|adjunct]] practice and intervention to help reduce the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality [[clinical research]] of these disorders.<ref name="Levine">{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Glenn N. |last2=Lange |first2=Richard A. |last3=Bairey-Merz |first3=C. Noel |last4=Davidson |first4=Richard J. |last5=Jamerson |first5=Kenneth |last6=Mehta |first6=Puja K. |last7=Michos |first7=Erin D. |last8=Norris |first8=Keith |last9=Ray |first9=Indranill Basu |last10=Saban |first10=Karen L. |last11=Shah |first11=Tina |last12=Stein |first12=Richard |last13=Smith |first13=Sidney C. |author14=American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology |author15=Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing |author16=Council on Hypertension |title=Meditation and Cardiovascular Risk Reduction: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |date=11 October 2017 |volume=6 |issue=10 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.117.002218 |pmid=28963100 |pmc=5721815 }}</ref> Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.'''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=Rebecca Erwin|last2=Beuthin|first2=Justin|last3=Granetzke|first3=Laura|date=February 2019|title=Complementary and Integrative Medicine for Episodic Migraine: an Update of Evidence from the Last 3 Years|journal=Current Pain and Headache Reports|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|page=10|doi=10.1007/s11916-019-0750-8|pmid=30790138|pmc=6559232|issn=1531-3433}}</ref>'''

Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help with [[irritable bowel syndrome]],<ref name="nih">{{cite web|url=http://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|title=Meditation: In depth|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|date=1 April 2016|access-date=22 August 2019|archive-date=3 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003213551/https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> [[insomnia]],<ref name=nih/> [[dementia|cognitive decline]] in the elderly,<ref name="Gard">{{cite journal |last1=Gard |first1=Tim |last2=Hölzel |first2=Britta K. |last3=Lazar |first3=Sara W. |title=The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review: Effects of meditation on cognition in aging |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=January 2014 |volume=1307 |issue=1 |pages=89–103 |doi=10.1111/nyas.12348 |pmid=24571182 |pmc=4024457| bibcode=2014NYASA1307...89G }}</ref> and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="Gallegos">{{cite journal |last1=Gallegos |first1=Autumn M. |last2=Crean |first2=Hugh F. |last3=Pigeon |first3=Wilfred R. |last4=Heffner |first4=Kathi L. |title=Meditation and yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=December 2017 |volume=58 |pages=115–124 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.004 |pmid=29100863 |pmc=5939561 }}</ref><ref name="Bisson Roberts Andrew Cooper p.">{{cite journal |last1=Bisson |first1=Jonathan I |last2=Roberts |first2=Neil P |last3=Andrew |first3=Martin |last4=Cooper |first4=Rosalind |last5=Lewis |first5=Catrin |title=Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=13 December 2013 |volume=2013 |issue=12 |pages=CD003388 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4 |pmid=24338345 |pmc=6991463 }}</ref> Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colgan |first1=Dana Dharmakaya |last2=Christopher |first2=Michael |last3=Michael |first3=Paul |last4=Wahbeh |first4=Helané |date=2016-04-01 |title=The Body Scan and Mindful Breathing Among Veterans with PTSD: Type of Intervention Moderates the Relationship Between Changes in Mindfulness and Post-treatment Depression |journal=Mindfulness |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=372–383 |doi=10.1007/s12671-015-0453-0 |issn=1868-8535 |pmc=7451147 |pmid=32863982}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brewer |first=Judson |date=2014 |title=Mindfulness in the Military |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501 |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=171 |issue=8 |pages=803–806 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14040501 |pmid=25082484 |issn=0002-953X}}</ref> Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=Hong|last2=Ni|first2=Chen-Xu|last3=Liu|first3=Yun-Zi|last4=Zhang|first4=Yi|last5=Su|first5=Wen-Jun|last6=Lian|first6=Yong-Jie|last7=Peng|first7=Wei|last8=Jiang|first8=Chun-Lei|date=October 2016|title=Mindfulness meditation for insomnia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579|journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research|language=en|volume=89|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.07.016|pmid=27663102|access-date=2021-10-15|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121113727/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022399916303579|url-status=live}}</ref> Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with  insomnia.<ref name=":03" />

=== In the workplace ===
A 2010 review of the literature on [[spirituality]] and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10551-009-0251-5 |title=Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=94 |page=89 |year=2009 |last1=Karakas |first1=Fahri |citeseerx=10.1.1.466.9171 |s2cid=145612370 }}</ref>

As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d9cb7940-ebea-11e1-985a-00144feab49a |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/d9cb7940-ebea-11e1-985a-00144feab49a |archive-date=2022-12-10 |url-access=subscription|title=The mind business|website=Financial Times| date=24 August 2012 |access-date=2016-11-21}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness|title=Why Google, Target, and General Mills Are Investing in Mindfulness|newspaper=Harvard Business Review|access-date=2016-11-21|archive-date=2016-11-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121235452/https://hbr.org/2015/12/why-google-target-and-general-mills-are-investing-in-mindfulness|url-status=live}}</ref> The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. [[Google]] also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.<ref name=":1" /> [[General Mills]] offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.<ref name=":1" />

Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Richtel |first=Matt |date=5 April 2019 |title=The Latest in Military Strategy: Mindfulness |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/health/military-mindfulness-training.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204221019/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/health/military-mindfulness-training.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== In school ===
A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waters |first1=Lea |last2=Barsky |first2=Adam |last3=Ridd |first3=Amanda |last4=Allen |first4=Kelly |date=2015-03-01 |title=Contemplative Education: A Systematic, Evidence-Based Review of the effect of Meditation Interventions in Schools |journal=Educational Psychology Review |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=103–134 |doi=10.1007/s10648-014-9258-2 |s2cid=254473829 |issn=1573-336X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Šouláková |first1=Barbora |last2=Kasal |first2=Alexandr |last3=Butzer |first3=Bethany |last4=Winkler |first4=Petr |date=2019-06-01 |title=Meta-Review on the Effectiveness of Classroom-Based Psychological Interventions Aimed at Improving Student Mental Health and Well-Being, and Preventing Mental Illness |journal=The Journal of Primary Prevention |language=en |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=255–278 |doi=10.1007/s10935-019-00552-5 |pmid=31140100 |s2cid=167218809 |issn=1573-6547}}</ref>

Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Gordon |first1=William |last2=Shonin |first2=Edo |last3=Sumich |first3=Alex |last4=Sundin |first4=Eva C. |last5=Griffiths |first5=Mark D. |date=2014-08-01 |title=Meditation Awareness Training (MAT) for Psychological Well-Being in a Sub-Clinical Sample of University Students: A Controlled Pilot Study |journal=Mindfulness |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=381–391 |doi=10.1007/s12671-012-0191-5 |s2cid=255785448 |issn=1868-8535}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Torné-Ruiz |first1=Alba |last2=Reguant |first2=Mercedes |last3=Roca |first3=Judith |date=2023-01-01 |title=Mindfulness for stress and anxiety management in nursing students in a clinical simulation: A quasi-experimental study |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471595322002475 |journal=Nurse Education in Practice |language=en |volume=66 |page=103533 |doi=10.1016/j.nepr.2022.103533 |pmid=36516640 |s2cid=254389266 |issn=1471-5953 |hdl=10459.1/84982 |hdl-access=free |access-date=16 April 2023 |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416012419/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471595322002475 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Relaxation response and biofeedback===
[[Herbert Benson]] of [[Harvard Medical School]] conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the [[Transcendental Meditation technique]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. In 1975, Benson published a book titled ''[[The Relaxation Response]]'' where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.{{sfn|Benson|Klipper|2000}} Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).<ref>{{cite book |title=Freedom in meditation |publisher=[[Anchor Books|Anchor Press]] |date=1977 |author=Patricia Carrington |isbn=978-0-385-11392-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/freedominmeditat0000carr }}</ref> In Norway, another sound-based method called [[Acem Meditation]] developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lagopoulos | first1=Jim | last2=Xu | first2=Jian | last3=Rasmussen | first3=Inge-Andre | last4=Vik | first4=Alexandra | last5=Malhi | first5=Gin S. | last6=Eliassen | first6=Carl Fredrik | last7=Arntsen | first7=Ingrid Edith | last8=Sæther | first8=Jardar G | last9=Saether | first9=JG | last10=Hollup | first10=Stig Arvid | last11=Holen | first11=Are | last12=Davanger | first12=Svend | last13=Ellingsen | first13=Øyvind | year=2009| title=Increased Theta and Alpha EEG Activity During Nondirective Meditation | journal=Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume=15 | issue=11| pages=1187–92| doi=10.1089/acm.2009.0113 | pmid=19922249 }}</ref>

[[Biofeedback]] has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Rubin | first1=Jeffrey B. | year=2001 | title=A New View of Meditation | journal=Journal of Religion and Health | volume=40 | issue=1| pages=121–28 | doi=10.1023/a:1012542524848| s2cid=32980899 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brandmeyer|first1=Tracy|last2=Delorme|first2=Arnaud|date=2013|title=Meditation and neurofeedback|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=4|page=688|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00688|pmid=24109463|pmc=3791377|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref>