Editing Jupiter (god) (section)

=== Liber ===
{{See also|Liber}}
''Iuppiter'' was associated with [[Liber]] through his epithet of ''Liber'' (association not yet been fully explained by scholars, due to the scarcity of early documentation).
In the past, it was maintained that Liber was only a progressively-detached [[wikt:hypostasis|hypostasis]] of Jupiter; consequently, the vintage festivals were to be attributed only to ''Iuppiter Liber''.<ref>Ludwig Preller ''Rõmische Mythologie'' I Berlin 1881 pp. 195–197; E. Aust s. v. Iuppiter (Liber) in ''Roscher lexicon'' II column 661 f.</ref> Such a hypothesis was rejected as groundless by Wissowa, although he was a supporter of Liber's Jovian origin.<ref>{{harvp|de Cazanove|1988|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} cites {{harvp|Wissowa|1912|page=120}} and A. Schnegelsberg ''De Liberi apud Romanos cultu capita duo'' Dissertation Marburg 1895 p. 40.</ref> Olivier de Cazanove contends that it is difficult to admit that Liber (who is present in the oldest calendars—those of Numa—in the ''Liberalia'' and in the month of ''Liber'' at Lavinium<ref name="CDVII21">Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 21.</ref>) was derived from another deity.{{sfnp|de Cazanove|1988|p=247 n. 4}} Such a derivation would find support only in epigraphic documents, primarily from the Osco-Sabellic area.<ref>Inscriptions from the territory of the Frentani (Zvetaieff ''Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum'' nr. 3); Vestini (CIL IX 3513; I 2nd 756 Furfo); Sabini (Jordan ''Analecta epigraphica latina'' p. 3 f.= CIL I 2nd 1838) and Campani (CIL X 3786 ''Iovi Liber(o)'' Capua).</ref> Wissowa sets the position of ''Iuppiter Liber'' within the framework of an agrarian Jupiter. The god also had a temple in this name on the Aventine in Rome, which was restored by Augustus and dedicated on 1 September. Here, the god was sometimes named ''Liber''<ref>Fasti Arvales ad 1. September.</ref> and sometimes ''Libertas''.<ref>Monumentum Ancyranum IV 7; CIL XI 657 Faventia; XIV 2579 Tusculum.</ref> Wissowa opines that the relationship existed in the concept of creative abundance through which the supposedly-separate Liber might have been connected{{sfnp|Wissowa|1912|page=106}} to the Greek god [[Dionysos]], although both deities might not have been originally related to [[viticulture]].

Other scholars assert that there was no Liber (other than a god of wine) within historical memory.<ref>{{harvp|de Cazanove|1988|p=248}} cites Fr. Bömer ''Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom'' I Wiesbaden 1957 p. 127 f.</ref> Olivier de Cazanove argues that the domain of the sovereign god Jupiter was that of sacred, sacrificial wine (''vinum inferium''<ref>[[Trebatius Testa]] apud Arnobius ''Ad nationes'' VII 31: "''solum quod inferetur sacrum...''" "only that which is spilt is considered sacred..."; also Cato ''De Agri Cultura'' CXXXII 2; CXXXIV 3; Servius IX 641; Isidore XX 2,7.</ref>),{{sfnp|de Cazanove|1988|p=248 ff}} while that of Liber and Libera was confined to secular wine (''vinum spurcum'');<ref>[[Marcus Antistius Labeo]] apud Festus s. v., p. 474 L.</ref> these two types were obtained through differing fermentation processes. The offer of wine to Liber was made possible by naming the ''mustum'' (grape juice) stored in [[amphora]]s ''sacrima''.<ref>Fr. Altheim ''Terra Mater'' Giessen 1931 p. 22 and n. 4 while acknowledging the obscurity of the etymology of this word proposed the derivation from ''sacerrima'' as ''bruma'' from ''brevissima''; ''Onomata Latina et Graeca'' s.v.: ''novum vinum''; ''Corpus Glossatorum Latinorum'' II p. 264: απαρχη γλεύκους.</ref>

Sacred wine was obtained by the natural fermentation of juice of grapes free from flaws of any type, religious (e. g. those struck by lightning, brought into contact with corpses or wounded people or coming from an unfertilised grapeyard) or secular (by "cutting" it with old wine). Secular (or "profane") wine was obtained through several types of manipulation (e.g. by adding honey, or ''mulsum''; using raisins, or ''passum''; by boiling, or ''defrutum''). However, the ''sacrima'' used for the offering to the two gods for the preservation of grapeyards, vessels and wine<ref>Columella ''De Re Rustica'' XII 18, 4 mentions a sacrifice to Liber and Libera immediately before.</ref> was obtained only by pouring the juice into amphors after pressing.<ref>Paulus s. v. sacrima p. 423 L; Festus p. 422 L (mutile).</ref> The ''mustum'' was considered ''spurcum'' (dirty), and thus unusable in sacrifices.<ref>Isidore ''Origines'' XX 3, 4; Enrico Monatanari "Funzione della sovranitá e feste del vino nella Roma repubblicana" in ''Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni'' '''49''' 1983 pp. 242–262.</ref> The amphor (itself not an item of sacrifice) permitted presentation of its content on a table or could be added to a sacrifice; this happened at the ''auspicatio vindamiae'' for the first grape<ref>G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae" 14–16 in ''Revue d' études latins'' XXXIX 1961 pp. 261–274.</ref> and for ears of corn of the ''praemetium'' on a dish (''lanx'') at the temple of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]].<ref>Henri Le Bonniec ''Le culte de Cérès à Rome'' Paris 1958 pp. 160–162.</ref>

Dumézil, on the other hand, sees the relationship between Jupiter and Liber as grounded in the social and political relevance of the two gods (who were both considered patrons of freedom).{{sfnp|Dumézil|1977|pp=331–332}} The ''Liberalia'' of March were, since earliest times, the occasion for the ceremony of the donning of the ''toga virilis'' or ''libera'' (which marked the passage into adult citizenship by young people). Augustine relates that these festivals had a particularly obscene character: a ''phallus'' was taken to the fields on a cart, and then back in triumph to town. In [[Lavinium]] they lasted a month, during which the population enjoyed bawdy jokes. The most honest ''matronae'' were supposed to publicly crown the ''phallus'' with flowers, to ensure a good harvest and repeal the ''fascinatio'' (evil eye).<ref name="CDVII21" /> In Rome representations of the sex organs were placed in the temple of the couple ''Liber Libera'', who presided over the male and female components of generation and the "liberation" of the semen.<ref>Augustine ''De Civitate Dei'' VII 3, 1.</ref> This complex of rites and beliefs shows that the divine couple's jurisdiction extended over fertility in general, not only that of grapes. The etymology of ''Liber'' (archaic form ''Loifer, Loifir'') was explained by Émile Benveniste as formed on the IE theme *leudh- plus the suffix -es-; its original meaning is "the one of germination, he who ensures the sprouting of crops".<ref>"Liber et liberi" in ''Revue d'études latins'' '''14''' 1936 pp. 52–58.</ref>

The relationship of Jupiter with freedom was a common belief among the Roman people, as demonstrated by the dedication of the ''Mons Sacer'' to the god after the first secession of the ''plebs''. Later inscriptions also show the unabated popular belief in Jupiter as bestower of freedom in the imperial era.<ref>"''...curatores Iovi Libertati''" CIL XI 657 and "''Iovi Obsequenti publice''" CIL XI 658 from [[Bagnacavallo]]; "''Iuppiter Impetrabilis''" from Cremella sopra [[Monza]] published by G. Zecchini in ''Rivista di studi italiani e latini'' '''110''' 1976 pp. 178–182. The double presence of Jupiter and [[Feronia (goddess)|Feronia]] at Bagnacavallo has led to speculation that the servile ''[[manumissio]]'' (legal ritual action by which slaves were freed) was practised in this sanctuary : Giancarlo Susini "San Pietro in Sylvis, santuario pagense e villaggio plebano nel Ravennate" in ''Mélanges offertes à G. Sanders'' Steenbrugge 1991 pp. 395–400. Cited in F. Cenerini above p. 103.</ref>