Editing History of science (section)

====Medieval universities====
An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of [[Medieval university|medieval universities]] in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned [[friar]]s who visited [[Monastery|monasteries]], consulted [[Library|libraries]], and conversed with other fellow scholars.<ref name= "gal2021d">{{cite book | last= Gal | first = Ofer | year = 2021 | chapter = Medieval learning | title = The Origins of Modern Science | pages = 101–138 | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1316649701}}</ref> A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or ''collegium'' in Latin). A ''collegium'' might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a ''collegium'' grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> As the number of ''collegia'' within a town grew, the ''collegia'' might request that their king grant them a [[charter]] that would convert them into a ''universitas''.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in [[Bologna]] in 1088, followed by [[Paris]] in 1150, [[Oxford]] in 1167, and [[Cambridge]] in 1231.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g., [[gallows]]).<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened. Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> A claim could be described as ''[[Papal infallibility#Ex cathedra|ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair", used within the context of teaching) or ''[[List of Latin phrases (E)#ex hypothesi|ex hypothesi]]'' (by hypothesis). This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize. Modern academic concepts and practices such as [[academic freedom]] or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.<ref name= "gal2021d"/>

The curriculum of these medieval institutions centered on the [[Liberal arts education#History|seven liberal arts]], which were aimed at providing beginning students with the skills for reasoning and scholarly language.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Students would begin their studies starting with the first three liberal arts or ''[[Trivium]]'' (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) followed by the next four liberal arts or ''[[Quadrivium]]'' (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).<ref name= "gal2021d"/><ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Those who completed these requirements and received their ''[[Bachelor's degree|baccalaureate]]'' (or [[Bachelor of Arts]]) had the option to join the higher faculty (law, medicine, or theology), which would confer an [[Legum Doctor|LLD]] for a lawyer, an [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] for a physician, or [[Doctor of Theology|ThD]] for a theologian.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Students who chose to remain in the lower faculty (arts) could work towards a ''[[Magister degree|Magister]]'' (or [[Master's degree|Master's]]) degree and would study three philosophies: metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy.<ref name= "gal2021d"/> [[Latin translations of the 12th century|Latin translation]]s of Aristotle's works such as {{lang|la|[[De Anima]]}} (''On the Soul'') and the commentaries on them were required readings. As time passed, the lower faculty was allowed to confer its own doctoral degree called the [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]].<ref name= "gal2021d"/> Many of the Masters were drawn to encyclopedias and had used them as textbooks. But these scholars yearned for the complete original texts of the Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians such as [[Aristotle]], [[Euclid]], and [[Galen]], which were not available to them at the time. These Ancient Greek texts were to be found in the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World.<ref name= "gal2021d"/>