Editing History of Europe (section)

====Ideological coalitions====
[[File:Bakunin speaking.png|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Mikhail Bakunin]] speaking to members of the [[International Workingmen's Association]] at the [[Basel Congress (1869)|Basel Congress]] in 1869]]
After the defeat of revolutionary France, the great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. The 1815 [[Congress of Vienna]] produced a peaceful [[balance of power in international relations|balance of power]] among the European empires, known as the [[Metternich]] system. The powerbase of their support was the aristocracy.<ref>Henry Kissinger, ''A world restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the problems of peace, 1812–22'' (1957)</ref> However, their reactionary efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, and the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Viereck|title=Conservative Thinkers: From John Adams to Winston Churchill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXxHHXwJT28C&pg=PA71|year=1978|pages=71–77|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2026-4|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427155348/https://books.google.com/books?id=qXxHHXwJT28C&pg=PA71|url-status=live}}</ref>

Radical intellectuals looked to the [[working class]]es for a base for socialist, communist and [[anarchism|anarchistic]] ideas. Widely influential was the 1848 ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonathan Sperber|title=The European Revolutions, 1848—1851|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRuHT71EZDwC&pg=PA86|year=2005|pages=86–88|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83907-5|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427155427/https://books.google.com/books?id=hRuHT71EZDwC&pg=PA86|url-status=live}}</ref>

The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) sought national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pamela Pilbeam|title=The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914: France, Germany, Italy, and Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkZdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA240|year=1990|page=240|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|isbn=978-1-349-20606-3}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>