Editing Roman Republic (section)

==Culture==
===Clothing===
{{Main|Clothing in ancient Rome}}
[[File:L'Arringatore.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[The Orator]]'', {{circa|100&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}, an Etrusco-Roman statue of a Republican [[Roman senate|senator]], wearing ''[[toga praetexta]]'' and [[Calceus|senatorial shoes]]; compared to the voluminous, costly, impractical togas of the Imperial era, the Republican-era type is frugal and "skimpy" ({{lang|la|exigua}}).<ref>Ceccarelli, L., in Bell, S., and Carpino, A., A, (Editors) ''A Companion to the Etruscans'' (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World), Blackwell Publishing, 2016, p. 33</ref>]]

The basic Roman garment was the Greek-style [[tunic]], worn knee-length and short-sleeved (or sleeveless) for men and boys, and ankle-length and long-sleeved for women and girls. The [[toga]] was distinctively Roman and became a mark of male citizenship, a statement of social degree.{{sfn|Vout|1996|p=215}} Convention also dictated the type, colour and style of {{lang|la|[[calcei]]}} (ankle-boots) appropriate to each level of male citizenship.

The whitest, most voluminous togas were worn by the senatorial class. High-ranking magistrates, priests, and citizen's children were entitled to a purple-bordered {{lang|la|[[toga praetexta]]}}. [[Roman triumph|Triumphal generals]] wore an all-purple, gold-embroidered {{lang|la|[[toga picta]]}}, associated with the image of [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus|Jupiter]] and Rome's former [[King of Rome|kings]]{{snd}}but only for a single day; Republican mores simultaneously fostered competitive display and [[Sumptuary law|attempted its containment]], to preserve at least a notional equality between peers and reduce the potential threats of class envy.{{sfn|Flower|1996|p=118|loc="The best model for understanding Roman sumptuary legislation is that of aristocratic self-preservation within a highly competitive society which valued overt display of prestige above all else."}} Most Roman citizens, particularly the lower class of plebs, opted for more comfortable and practical garments, such as tunics and cloaks.

Luxurious and highly coloured clothing had always been available to those who could afford it, particularly women of the leisured classes. There is material evidence for cloth-of-gold ([[Lamé (fabric)|lamé]]) as early as the 7th century.{{sfn|Sebesta|Bonfante|1994|pp=62–68}} By the 3rd century, significant quantities of raw silk were being imported from [[Han China]].{{sfn|Gabucci|2005|p=168}} [[Tyrian purple]], a quasi-sacred colour, was officially reserved for the border of the {{lang|la|toga praetexta}} and for the solid purple {{lang|la|toga picta}}.{{sfn|Bradley|2011|pp=189, 194–195}}{{sfn|Edmondson|Keith|2008|pp=28–30}}

For most Romans, even the cheapest linen or woolen clothing represented a major expense. Worn clothing was passed down the social scale until it fell to rags, and these were used for patchwork.{{sfn|Vout|1996|pp=211–212}} Wool and linen were the mainstays of Roman clothing, idealised by moralists as simple and frugal.{{sfn|Edmondson|Keith|2008|p=33}} For most women, the preparation and weaving of wool were part of daily housekeeping, either for family use or for sale. In traditionalist, wealthy households, the family's spindles and looms were positioned in the semi-public reception area ({{lang|la|[[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]]}}), so the {{lang|la|[[mater familias]]}} and her {{lang|la|[[Pater familias#The Roman familia|familia]]}} could demonstrate their industry and frugality: a largely symbolic and moral activity for those of their class, rather than practical necessity.{{efn|In reality, she was the female equivalent of the romanticised citizen-farmer: see {{harvnb|Flower|2004|pp=153, 195–197}}}}

As the Republic wore on, its trade, territories and wealth increased. Roman conservatives deplored the apparent erosion of traditional, class-based dress distinctions, and an increasing Roman appetite for luxurious fabrics and exotic "foreign" styles among all classes, including their own. Towards the end of the Republic, the ultra-traditionalist [[Cato the Younger]] publicly protested the self-indulgence of his peers, and the loss of Republican [[Virtus|"manly virtues"]], by wearing a "skimpy" dark woolen toga, without tunic or footwear.{{sfn|Edmondson|Keith|2008|p=33}}{{efn|[[Appian]]'s history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear the same costume." See {{harvnb|Rothfus|2010|p=1}}}}

===Food and dining===
{{main|Ancient Roman cuisine}}
[[File:Scène de banquet, fresque, Herculanum.jpg|thumb|Banquet scene, [[fresco]], [[Herculaneum]], Italy, {{circa|50&nbsp;BC|lk=no}}]]
Modern study of the dietary habits during the Republic are hampered by various factors. Few writings have survived, and because different components of their diet are more or less likely to be preserved, the archaeological record cannot be relied on.{{sfn|Witcher|2016|p=[https://dro.dur.ac.uk/20474/1/20474.pdf 8]}}
In the early Republic, the main meal ([[cena]]) essentially consisted of a kind of porridge, the ''[[puls (food)|puls]]''.{{sfn|Woolf|2007|p=388}} The simplest kind would be made from [[emmer]], water, salt and fat. The wealthy commonly ate their ''puls'' with eggs, cheese, and honey, and it was also occasionally served with meat or fish. Over the course of the Republican period, the ''cena'' developed into two courses: the main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g. molluscs or shrimp). By the late Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in three parts: an appetiser (''gustatio''), main course (''primae mensae''), and dessert (''secundae mensae'').

During the mid-to-later Republic, wine was increasingly treated as a necessity rather than a luxury. [[Ancient Rome and wine|In Ancient Rome, wine]] was normally mixed with water immediately before drinking, since the fermentation was not controlled and the [[alcohol proof]] was high. Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (''[[posca]]'') was a popular drink for the lower classes and a staple part of the Roman soldier's ration.{{sfn|Dalby|2003|p=270}} Beer (''cerevisia'') was known but considered vulgar, and was associated with [[barbarian]]s.{{sfn|Stambaugh|1988|p=149}}{{sfn|Bonfante|2011|p=23}}

From 123&nbsp;BC, a ration of unmilled wheat (as much as 33&nbsp;kg), known as the ''frumentatio'', was distributed to as many as 200,000 people every month by the Roman state.{{sfn|Garnsey|1998|pp=237–238}}

===Education and language===
{{Main|Roman school|Latin}}
Rome's original native language was [[early Latin]], the language of the Italic [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]]. Most surviving [[Latin literature]] is written in [[Classical Latin]], a highly stylised and polished [[literary language]] which developed from early and vernacular spoken Latin, from the 1st century. Most Latin speakers used [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation.<ref>{{cite book |last=Migliorini |first=Bruno |author-link=Bruno Migliorini |year=2007 |title=Storia della lingua italiana |location=Milan |publisher=Bompiani |edition=XII |pages=12–13 |isbn=978-88-452-4961-7 |language=it}}</ref>

Following various military conquests in the [[Greek East]], Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.{{sfn|Pascal|1984}} Strenuous, disciplined physical training helped prepare boys of citizen class for their eventual citizenship and a military career. Girls generally received instruction{{sfn|OCD<sup>3</sup>|1996}} from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing. Schooling of a more formal sort began around 200. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. [[Rhetoric|Effective oratory]] and good Latin were highly valued among the elite, and were essential to a career in law or politics.{{sfn|Farrell|2001|pp=74–75}}{{sfn|Bauman|1994|pp=51–52}}

===Arts===
{{Main|Roman Republican art|Latin literature|Music of ancient Rome}}

In the 3rd century, Greek art taken as the spoils of war became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.{{sfn|Toynbee|1971}}

Over time, [[Roman architecture]] was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]] and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public use. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in the most important towns and cities in the Roman Republic. The administrative structure and wealth of the Empire made possible very large projects even in locations remote from the main centres.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=D. J. |chapter=Mosaics |editor=Martin Henig |title=A Handbook of Roman Art |publisher=Phaidon |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-714-82214-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofromana00mart |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofromana00mart |page=26}}</ref>

===Literature===
{{Main|Classical Latin#Republican|Latin Literature#The Age of Cicero|}}
[[File:M. Tullius Cicero, Capitoline Museum, Rome (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Marble bust of [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]], Musei Capitolini, Rome]]

Early Roman literature was influenced heavily by Greek authors. From the mid-Republic, Roman authors followed Greek models, to produce free-verse and verse-form plays and other in Latin; for example, [[Livius Andronicus]] wrote tragedies and comedies. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the comedies of [[Plautus]], written during the mid-Republic. Works of well-known, popular playwrights were sometimes commissioned for performance at religious festivals; many of these were [[satyr play]]s, based on Greek models and Greek myths. The poet [[Gnaeus Naevius|Naevius]] may be said to have written the first Roman epic poem, although [[Ennius]] was the first Roman poet to write an epic in an adapted Latin hexameter. However, only fragments of Ennius' epic, the ''[[Annales (Ennius)|Annales]]'', have survived, yet both Naevius and Ennius influenced later Latin epic, especially [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. [[Lucretius]], in his ''[[On the Nature of Things]]'', explicated the tenets of [[Epicurean]] philosophy.

The politician, poet and philosopher [[Cicero]]'s literary output was remarkably prolific and so influential on contemporary and later literature that the period from 83 to 43&nbsp;BC has been called the "Age of Cicero". His oratory continues to influence modern speakers, while his philosophical works, particularly Cicero's Latin adaptations of Greek Platonic and Epicurean works, influenced many later philosophers.{{sfn|Zauzmer|2016}}{{sfn|Griffin|1986|pp=454–459}} Other prominent writers of this period include the grammarian and historian of religion [[Varro]], the politician, general and military commentator [[Julius Caesar]], the historian [[Sallust]] and the love poet [[Catullus]].

===Sports and entertainment===
[[File:Amphitheatre 1 Pompeii.jpg|thumb|The [[Amphitheatre of Pompeii]], built around 70&nbsp;BC and buried by [[eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79|the eruption]] of [[Mount Vesuvius]] 79 AD, once hosted spectacles with [[gladiator]]s.]]
The [[Campus Martius]] was Rome's track and field playground, where youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing.<ref>[[Strabo]], ''[[Geographica]]'', V, 3,8.</ref> Equestrian sports, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edusport.loescher.it/news/sport-e-gioco-al-tempo-dei-romani-3645 |title=Sport e gioco al tempo dei Romani |access-date=16 August 2023 |language=it}}</ref> In the countryside, pastimes included fishing and hunting.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.museociviltaromana.it/it/percorso/sala-liv-la-caccia-la-pesca-e-lalimentazione |title=Sala LIV: La caccia, la pesca e l'alimentazione |access-date=16 August 2023 |language=it}}</ref> Board games played in Rome included dice (Tesserae or [[Venus Throw|Tali]]), Roman chess ([[Latrunculi]]), Roman [[checkers]] (Calculi), [[Tic-tac-toe]] (Terni Lapilli), and [[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.{{sfn|Austin|1934}} Other activities included chariot races, and musical and theatrical performances.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.letture.org/gladiatori-carri-e-navi-gli-spettacoli-nell-antica-roma-patrizia-arena |title="Gladiatori, carri e navi. Gli spettacoli nell'antica Roma" di Patrizia Arena |date=24 March 2020 |access-date=16 August 2023 |language=it}}</ref>