Editing Police (section)

==Strategies==
[[File:Roppongi police koban - Tokyo area - Oct 26 2019.jpeg|thumb|[[Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department]] officers outside a [[kōban]] (small [[police station]]) in [[Roppongi]], [[Tokyo]]. Kōban allow police to establish a permanent police presence and offer police station services across a wide area, while taking up minimal space.]]
The advent of the police car, [[two-way radio]], and [[telephone]] in the early 20th century transformed policing into a reactive strategy that focused on responding to [[Call for service|calls for service]] away from their [[beat (police)|beat]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reiss |first=Albert J. Jr. |title=Police Organization in the Twentieth Century |journal=Crime and Justice |year=1992 |volume= 15|pages= 51–97|id={{NCJ|138800}} |doi=10.1086/449193|s2cid=144200517 }}</ref> With this transformation, police command and control became more centralized.

In the United States, [[August Vollmer]] introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Finest of the Finest |magazine=Time Magazine |date=February 18, 1966 |url=http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899019,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014095649/http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C899019%2C00.html |archive-date=October 14, 2008 }}</ref> [[Orlando Winfield Wilson|O.W. Wilson]], a student of Vollmer, helped reduce [[police corruption|corruption]] and introduce professionalism in [[Wichita, Kansas]], and later in the [[Chicago Police Department]].<ref name="cdlib">{{cite web |url=http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf3v19n6s0&doc.view=entire_text |title=Guide to the Orlando Winfield Wilson Papers, ca. 1928–1972 |publisher=Online Archive of California |access-date=2006-10-20}}</ref> Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict [[merit system]] for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers.<ref name="nytimes-1960">{{cite news |title=Chicago Chooses Criminologist to Head and Clean Up the Police |publisher=United Press International/The New York Times |date=February 22, 1960}}</ref> During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with [[felony|felonies]] and other serious crime and conducting visible car patrols in between, rather than broader focus on [[crime prevention]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Evolving Strategy of Policing: Case Studies of Strategic Change |author1=Kelling, George L. |author2=Mary A. Wycoff |date=2002 |publisher=National Institute of Justice |id={{NCJ|198029}}}}</ref>

The [[Kansas City preventive patrol experiment|Kansas City Preventive Patrol study]] in the early 1970s showed flaws in using visible car patrols for crime prevention. It found that aimless car patrols did little to deter crime and often went unnoticed by the public. Patrol officers in cars had insufficient contact and interaction with the community, leading to a social rift between the two.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/kcppe.pdf |title=The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment – A Summary Report |publisher=Police Foundation |author1=Kelling, George L. |author2=Tony Pate |author3=Duane Dieckman |author14=Charles E. Brown |year=1974 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010100509/http://policefoundation.org/pdf/kcppe.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-10 }}</ref> In the 1980s and 1990s, many law enforcement agencies began to adopt [[community policing]] strategies, and others adopted [[problem-oriented policing]].

[[Broken windows theory|Broken windows' policing]] was another, related approach introduced in the 1980s by [[James Q. Wilson]] and [[George L. Kelling]], who suggested that police should pay greater attention to minor "quality of life" offenses and disorderly conduct. The concept behind this method is simple: broken windows, graffiti, and other physical destruction or degradation of property create an environment in which crime and disorder is more likely. The presence of broken windows and graffiti sends a message that authorities do not care and are not trying to correct problems in these areas. Therefore, correcting these small problems prevents more serious criminal activity.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198203/broken-windows |title=Broken Windows |magazine=Atlantic Monthly |date = March 1982|author1=Kelling, George L. |author2=James Q. Wilson |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The theory was popularised in the early 1990s by police chief [[William J. Bratton]] and New York City Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]]. It was emulated in 2010s in Kazakhstan through zero tolerance policing. Yet it failed to produce meaningful results in this country because citizens distrusted police while state leaders preferred police loyalty over police good behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Slade|first1=Gavin|last2=Trochev|first2=Alexei|last3=Talgatova|first3=Malika|date=2020-12-02|title=The Limits of Authoritarian Modernisation: Zero Tolerance Policing in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2020.1844867|journal=Europe-Asia Studies|volume=73|language=en|pages=178–199|doi=10.1080/09668136.2020.1844867|s2cid=229420067|issn=0966-8136}}</ref>

Building upon these earlier models, [[intelligence-led policing]] has also become an important strategy. Intelligence-led policing and problem-oriented policing are complementary strategies, both of which involve systematic use of information.<ref>{{cite web |author=Tilley, Nick |title=Problem-Oriented Policing, Intelligence-Led Policing and the National Intelligence Model |publisher=Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, University College London |url=http://www.jdi.ucl.ac.uk/publications/short_reports/problem_oriented_policing.php |year=2003}}</ref> Although it still lacks a universally accepted definition, the crux of intelligence-led policing is an emphasis on the collection and analysis of information to guide police operations, rather than the reverse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Intelligence-led policing: A Definition|publisher=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|url=http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/crimint/intelligence_e.htm|access-date=2007-06-15 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060515144758/http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/crimint/intelligence_e.htm |archive-date = May 15, 2006}}</ref>

A related development is [[evidence-based policing]]. In a similar vein to [[evidence-based policy]], evidence-based policing is the use of controlled experiments to find which methods of policing are more effective. Leading advocates of evidence-based policing include the criminologist [[Lawrence W. Sherman]] and philanthropist [[Jerry Lee]]. Findings from controlled experiments include the [[Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment]],<ref name="sherman1984-pf">{{cite web|url=http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/minneapolisdve.pdf |title=The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment |date=April 1984 |author1=Sherman, Lawrence W. |author2=Richard A. Berk |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Police Foundation |access-date=2007-06-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705011333/http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/minneapolisdve.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-05 }}</ref> evidence that patrols deter crime if they are concentrated in crime hotspots<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sherman | first1 = L.W. | last2 = Weisburd | first2 = D. | year = 1995 | title = General deterrent effects of police patrol in crime "hot spots": A randomized, controlled trial. | journal = Justice Quarterly | volume = 12 | issue = 4| pages = 625–648 | doi=10.1080/07418829500096221}}</ref> and that restricting police powers to shoot suspects does not cause an increase in crime or violence against police officers.<ref>Sherman, L.W. (1983). 'Reducing Police Gun Use: Critical Events, Administrative Policy and Organizational Change', in Punch, M. (ed.) ''Control in the Police Organization'', Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press.</ref> Use of experiments to assess the usefulness of strategies has been endorsed by many police services and institutions, including the U.S. [[Police Foundation]] and the UK [[College of Policing]].