Editing Free will (section)

==In theology==
{{Main|Free will in theology}}

=== Christianity ===
[[File:Antonio Rodríguez - Saint Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|Augustine's view of free will and predestination would go on to have a profound impact on Christian theology. ]]

The notions of free will and predestination are heavily debated among Christians. Free will in the Christian sense is the ability to choose between good or evil. Among Catholics, there are those holding to [[Thomism]], adopted from what [[Thomas Aquinas]] put forth in the ''[[Summa Theologica]].'' There are also some holding to [[Molinism]] which was put forth by Jesuit priest [[Luis de Molina]]. Among Protestants there is [[Arminianism]], held primarily by the [[Methodist Church]]es, and formulated by Dutch theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]]; and there is also [[Calvinism]] held by most in the [[Reformed tradition]] which was formulated by the French Reformed theologian, [[John Calvin]]. John Calvin was heavily influenced by [[Augustine of Hippo]] views on predestination put forth in his work ''On the Predestination of the Saints.'' [[Martin Luther]] seems to have held views on predestination similar to Calvinism in his ''[[On the Bondage of the Will]],'' thus rejecting free will. In condemnation of Calvin and Luther views, the Roman Catholic [[Council of Trent]] declared that "the free will of man, moved and excited by God, can by its consent co-operate with God, Who excites and invites its action; and that it can thereby dispose and prepare itself to obtain the grace of justification. The will can resist grace if it chooses. It is not like a lifeless thing, which remains purely passive. Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race (Sess. VI, cap. i and v)." [[John Wesley]], the father of the Methodist tradition, taught that humans, enabled by [[prevenient grace]], have free will through which they can choose God and to do good works, with the goal of [[Christian perfection]].<ref name="TGC2021">{{cite news |title=The Battle of the Will, Part 4: John Wesley and Jonathan Edwards |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/battle-will-part-4-john-wesley-jonathan-edwards/ |newspaper=[[The Gospel Coalition]] |access-date=6 August 2021 |language=English |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806015041/https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/battle-will-part-4-john-wesley-jonathan-edwards/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Upholding [[synergism]] (the belief that God and man cooperate in salvation), Methodism teaches that "Our Lord Jesus Christ did so die for all men as to make salvation attainable by every man that cometh into the world. If men are not saved that fault is entirely their own, lying solely in their own unwillingness to obtain the salvation offered to them. (John 1:9; I Thess. 5:9; Titus 2:11-12)."<ref name="IMC1986">{{cite book |title=Discipline of the Immanuel Missionary Church |date=1986 |page=7 |publisher=[[Immanuel Missionary Church]] |location=[[Shoals, Indiana]]|language=English}}</ref>

[[Paul the Apostle]] discusses Predestination in some of his Epistles.

"''For whom He foreknew, He also predestined to become conformed to the image of His Son, that He might be the first-born among many brethren; and whom He predestined, these He also called; and whom He called, these He also justified; and whom He justified, these He also glorified.''" —[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 8:29–30

"''He predestined us to adoption as sons through Jesus Christ to Himself, according to the kind intention of His will.''" —[[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] 1:5

There are also mentions of moral freedom in what are now termed as 'Deuterocanonical' works which the Orthodox and Catholic Churches use. In Sirach 15 the text states:

"Do not say: "It was God's doing that I fell away," for what he hates he does not do. Do not say: "He himself has led me astray," for he has no need of the wicked. Abominable wickedness the Lord hates and he does not let it happen to those who fear him. God in the beginning created human beings and made them subject to their own free choice. If you choose, you can keep the commandments; loyalty is doing the will of God. Set before you are fire and water; to whatever you choose, stretch out your hand. Before everyone are life and death, whichever they choose will be given them. Immense is the wisdom of the Lord; mighty in power, he sees all things. The eyes of God behold his works, and he understands every human deed. He never commands anyone to sin, nor shows leniency toward deceivers."
- Ben Sira 15:11-20 NABRE

The exact meaning of these verses has been debated by Christian theologians throughout history.

=== Judaism ===
{{main|Free will in theology#Judaism}} 
[[File:Flickr - USCapitol - Maimonides (1135-1204).jpg|thumb|right|[[Bas relief]] of Maimonides in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]]]
In [[Jewish thought]] the concept of "Free will" ({{Langx|he|בחירה חפשית|translit=bechirah chofshit}}; {{Lang|he|בחירה}}, {{Transliteration|he|bechirah}}) is foundational. 
The most succinct statement is by [[Maimonides]], in a two part treatment, where human free will is specified as part of the universe's [[Jewish principles of faith#God is the creator of the universe|Godly design]]:
#Maimonides's reasoned<ref>Rambam Teshuvah 5:4</ref> that human beings must have free will (at least in the context of choosing to do good or evil), as without this, the demands of [[Nevi'im#Latter Prophets|the prophets]] would have been meaningless, there would be no need for the [[Torah]] and [[mitzvah|''Mitzvot'']] ("commandments"), and [[Jewish principles of faith#Reward and punishment|justice could not be administered]].
#At the same time, Maimonides&nbsp;– and other thinkers&nbsp;– recognizes<ref>Rambam Teshuvah 5:5</ref> the [[Free will in theology#The paradox of free will|paradox that will arise]] given (i) that Judaism simultaneously recognizes God's [[omniscience]], and further (ii) the nature of [[Divine providence in Judaism|Divine providence as understood in Judaism]]. (In fact the problem may be seen to overlap [[Jewish principles of faith#Nature of God|several others in Jewish Philosophy]].)

=== Islam ===

In [[Islam]] the theological issue is not usually how to reconcile free will with God's foreknowledge, but with God's ''jabr'', or divine commanding power. [[Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari|al-Ash'ari]] developed an "acquisition" or "dual-agency" form of compatibilism, in which human free will and divine ''jabr'' were both asserted, and which became a cornerstone of the dominant [[Ash'ari]] position.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watt |first=Montgomery |title=Free-Will and Predestination in Early Islam |publisher=Luzac & Co. |year=1948 |location=London |author-link=William Montgomery Watt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolfson |first=Harry |title=The Philosophy of Kalam |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |author-link=Harry Austryn Wolfson}}</ref> In [[Shia]] Islam, Ash'aris understanding of a higher balance toward [[predestination]] is challenged by most theologians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-islam.org/mananddestiny/3.htm |title=Man and His Destiny |publisher=Al-islam.org |access-date=2010-11-21 |archive-date=2012-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415173216/http://www.al-islam.org/mananddestiny/3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Free will, according to Islamic doctrine is the main factor for man's accountability in his/her actions throughout life. Actions taken by people exercising free will are counted on the [[Day of Judgement]] because they are their own; however, the free will happens with the permission of God.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tosun|first=Ender|title=Guide to Understanding Islam|year=2012|location=Istanbul|isbn=978-605-63198-1-5|url=http://www.islamicinformationcenter.info/understandingislam.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528093600/http://www.islamicinformationcenter.info/understandingislam.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-28 |url-status=live|page=209}}</ref> 

In contrast, the [[Mu'tazilism|Mu'tazila]], known as the rationalist school of Islam, has a position that is opposite to the Ash'arite and other Islamic theology in its view of free will and divine justice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila - Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/ash-ariyya-and-mu-tazila/v-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803001911/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/ash-ariyya-and-mu-tazila/v-1 |archive-date=2024-08-03 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=www.rep.routledge.com |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> Because the Mu'tazila have a doctrine that emphasizes God's justice (''<nowiki/>'Adl'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Asadābādī |first=ʻAbd al-Jabbār ibn Aḥmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PilAQAACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220041523/https://books.google.co.id/books/about/Sharh_al_usul_al_khamsah.html%3Fid%3D_PilAQAACAAJ%26redir_esc%3Dy |url-status=usurped |archive-date=December 20, 2024 |title=Sharḥ al-uṣūl al-khamsah |date= 1965|publisher=Maktabat wahbah |language=ar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mu'tazilah {{!}} History, Doctrine, & Meaning {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mutazilah |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=2018-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621175819/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mutazilah |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mu'tazila believe that humans themselves create their will and actions, so human actions and movements are not destiny that are solely [[Jabriyya|driven by God]] and do not necessarily require God's permission. For the Mu'tazila, humans themselves create their actions and behavior consciously through free will which is formulated and carried out by the [[brain]] and [[nervous system]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seyithan |first=C. A. N. |date=2021 |title=An Anatomic and Physiologic Analysis of the Discussions on the Locus of Human Power Among the Schools of Kalām |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SEYAAA |journal=Kader |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=631–644 |doi=10.18317/kaderdergi.971440 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2024-12-19 |access-date=2024-12-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219192534/https://philpapers.org/rec/SEYAAA |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Cengiz, Yunus, [https://nazariyat.org/content/5-sayilar/8-cilt-4-sayi-2/2-m0056/m_cengiz.pdf “Two Competing Approaches in the Mu‘tazilite View of the Human Being: The Traditions of Abu al-Hudhayl and al-Nazzam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815054102/https://nazariyat.org/content/5-sayilar/8-cilt-4-sayi-2/2-m0056/m_cengiz.pdf |date=2024-08-15 }}, Nazariyat Journal for the History of Islamic Philosophy and Sciences 4/2 (May 2018): 57-7</ref> Thus, this condition guarantees God's justice when judging every human being in the Day of Judgement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allison |first=George |title=Between Justice and Judgment: An Analysis of Free Will in Mu'tazilism |url=https://keep.lib.asu.edu/items/131053 |journal=Arizona State University Library}}</ref>

=== Others ===

The philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] claimed that divine omnipotence cannot be separated from divine goodness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Timothy P. |title=Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |location=Cambridge |chapter=Arminian edification: Kierkegaard on grace and free will}}</ref> As a truly omnipotent and good being, God could create beings with true freedom over God. Furthermore, God would voluntarily do so because "the greatest good... which can be done for a being, greater than anything else that one can do for it, is to be truly free."<ref>Kierkegaard, Søren. (1848) ''Journals and Papers'', vol. III. Reprinted in Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1967–78.</ref> [[Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense]] is a contemporary expansion of this theme, adding how God, free will, and [[problem of evil|evil]] are consistent.<ref>Mackie, J.L. (1955) "Evil and Omnipotence", ''Mind'', new series, vol. 64, pp. 200–12.</ref>

Some philosophers follow [[William of Ockham]] in holding that necessity and possibility are defined with respect to a given point in time and a given matrix of empirical circumstances, and so something that is merely possible from the perspective of one observer may be necessary from the perspective of an omniscient.<ref name="ockham">Ockham, William. Predestination, God's Knowledge, and Future Contingents, early 14th century, trans. Marilyn McCord Adams and [[Norman Kretzmann]] 1982, Hackett, esp pp. 46–47</ref> Some philosophers follow [[Philo of Alexandria]], a philosopher known for his [[anthropocentrism]], in holding that free will is a feature of a human's [[Soul (spirit)|soul]], and thus that non-human [[animal]]s lack free will.<ref>[[H.A. Wolfson]], ''Philo'', 1947 Harvard University Press; Religious Philosophy, 1961 Harvard University Press; and "St. Augustine and the Pelagian Controversy" in Religious Philosophy</ref>