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== References == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === ; Primary sources * [[Ban Gu]] et al., ''[[Book of Han]]'', esp. vol. 94, [[:zh:s:漢書/卷094上|part 1]], [[:zh:s:漢書/卷094下|part 2]]. * [[Fan Ye (historian)|Fan Ye]] et al., ''[[Book of the Later Han]]'', esp. [[:zh:s:後漢書/卷89|vol. 89]]. * [[Sima Qian]] et al., ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', esp. [[:zh:s:史記/卷110|vol. 110]]. ; Other sources consulted {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Adas |first=Michael |year=2001 |title=Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History |publisher=American Historical Association/Temple University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Bailey |first=Harold W. |author-link=Harold Walter Bailey |year=1985 |title=''Indo-Scythian Studies: being Khotanese Texts'', VII |url=https://archive.org/details/EtymologyOfXiongnuNamesByTheLateH.w.Bailey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |jstor=312539 |access-date=30 May 2015 }} * {{cite book|last=Barfield|first=Thomas J.|year=1989|title=The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China, 221 BC to AD 1757|publisher=Basil Blackwell}} * {{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I. |author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |date=16 March 2009 |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-13589-2 |access-date=30 May 2015 }} * {{cite book |last=Bentley |first=Jerry |year=1993 |title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Bunker |first=Emma C. |title=Nomadic Art of the Eastern Eurasian Steppes: The Eugene V. Thaw and Other Notable New York Collections |location=New York |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=https://archive.org/details/NomadicArtoftheEasternEurasianSteppesTheEugeneVThawandOtherNotableNewYorkCollection/page/n43/mode/2up |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09688-0 |oclc=819761397 |via=Internet Archive }} ({{cite web |title=Via Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/96120/rec/302 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203033950/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/96120/rec/302 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=27 December 2021 }}) * {{cite book |last=Christian |first=David |title=A history of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol. 1: Inner Eurasia from prehistory to the Mongol Empire |publisher=Blackwell |year=1998}} * {{cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=P. B. |last2=Marchi |first2=N. |s2cid=13670282 |display-authors=1 |date=9 May 2018 |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |access-date=11 April 2020 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–373 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |hdl=1887/3202709 |ref={{harvid|Damgaard et al.|2018}} |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite book |last=Demattè |first=Paola |year=2006 |chapter=Writing the Landscape: Petroglyphs of Inner Mongolia and Ningxia Province (China) |title=Beyond the steppe and the sown: proceedings of the 2002 University of Chicago Conference on Eurasian Archaeology |editor=David L. Peterson |display-editors=et al |publisher=Brill |series=Colloquia Pontica: series on the archaeology and ancient history of the Black Sea area |volume=13 |pages=300–313}} (Proceedings of the First International Conference of Eurasian Archaeology, University of Chicago, 3–4 May 2002.) * {{cite book |last=Di Cosmo |first=Nicola |year=1999 |chapter=The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China |editor=Michael Loewe |name-list-style=and |editor2=Edward Shaughnessy |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Di Cosmo |first=Nicola |year=2002 |title=Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} (original edition) * {{cite book |last=Di Cosmo |first=Nicola |year=2004 |title=Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} (First paperback edition) * {{cite journal|last1=Fairbank|first1=J.K.|last2=Têng|first2=S.Y.|title=On the Ch'ing Tributary System |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=6|number=2|pages=135–246|year=1941|doi=10.2307/2718006 |jstor=2718006}} * {{cite journal|last=Geng|first=Shimin [耿世民]|journal=Yu Yan Yu Fan Yi|script-title=zh:阿尔泰共同语、匈奴语探讨|trans-title=On Altaic Common Language and Xiongnu Language|script-journal=zh:语言与翻译(汉文版)|trans-journal=Language and Translation|year=2005|issue=2|issn=1001-0823|oclc=123501525|url=http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-QCode~yyyfy200502001.html|archive-date=25 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225170056/http://scholar.ilib.cn/A-QCode~yyyfy200502001.html}} * {{cite book |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |year=1992 |title=An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East |isbn=978-3-447-03274-2 |chapter=Chapter VI – The Uyğur Qağante (742–840) |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00gold |url-access=limited }} * {{Cite book |last=Grousset |first=Rene |year=1970 |title=The Empire of the Steppes |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppesh00prof }} * Hall, Mark & Minyaev, Sergey. Chemical Analyses of Xiong-nu Pottery: A Preliminary Study of Exchange and Trade on the Inner Asian Steppes. In: ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' (2002) 29, pp. 135–144 * {{cite book |last=Harmatta |first=János |author-link=János Harmatta |chapter=Conclusion |editor1-last=Harmatta |editor1-first=János |editor1-link=János Harmatta |date=1 January 1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=485–492 |isbn=978-92-3-102846-5 |access-date=29 May 2015 }} * {{cite book |last=Harmatta |first=János |author-link=János Harmatta |chapter=The Emergence of the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages |editor1-last=Dani |editor1-first=A. H. |editor1-link=Ahmad Hasan Dani |editor2-last=Masson |editor2-first=V. M. |date=1992 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B. C. |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000944/094466e.pdf#xml=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?database=&set=4DC27DB7_0_203&hits_rec=10&hits_lng=eng |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=346–370 |isbn=978-92-3-102719-2 |access-date=29 May 2015 }} * {{cite journal |author-link=Walter Bruno Henning |last=Henning |first=W. B. |date=1948 |jstor=608717 |title=The date of the Sogdian ancient letters |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=12 |issue=3–4 |pages=601–615|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00083178 |s2cid=161867825 }} * {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Charles O. |year=1975 |title=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2353-2|quote="The proto-Turkic Hsiung-nu were now challenged by other alien groups — proto-Tibetans, proto-Mongol tribes called the Hsien-pi, and separate proto-Turks called To-pa (Toba)."}} * {{cite book |last=Ishjamts |first=N. |year=1996 |chapter=Nomads In Eastern Central Asia |title=History of civilizations of Central Asia |series=Volume 2: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 bc to ad 250 |editor=Janos Harmatta |display-editors=et al |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=92-3-102846-4 |oclc=928730707 |pages=151–170}} * {{cite book |last=Jankowski |first=Henryk |author-link=:pl:Henryk Jankowski (turkolog) |date=2006 |title=Historical-Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Russian Habitation Names of the Crimea|series=Handbuch der Orientalistik [HdO], 8: Central Asia; 15. |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-15433-9 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Keyser-Tracqui |first1=Christine |last2=Crubézy |first2=Eric |display-authors=1 |date=July 2003 |title=Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages= 247–260|doi=10.1086/377005 |pmc=1180365 |pmid=12858290 |ref={{harvid|Keyser-Tracqui et al.|2003}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Keyser-Tracqui |first1=Christine |last2=Crubézy |first2=Eric |display-authors=1 |date=October 2006 |title=Population origins in Mongolia: genetic structure analysis of ancient and modern DNA |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |publisher=[[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |volume=131 |issue=2 |pages= 272–281|doi=10.1002/ajpa.20429 |pmid=16596591 |ref={{harvid|Keyser-Tracqui et al.|2006}}}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Kijeong |last2=Brenner |first2=Charles H. |display-authors=1 |date=July 2010 |title=A western Eurasian male is found in 2000-year-old elite Xiongnu cemetery in Northeast Mongolia |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |publisher=[[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages= 429–440|doi=10.1002/ajpa.21242 |pmid=20091844 |ref={{harvid|Kim et al.|2010}}}} * {{cite book |last=Loewe |first= Michael |year= 1974 |chapter= The campaigns of Han Wu-ti |title=Chinese ways in warfare |editor-first1= Frank A. Jr. |editor-last1=Kierman |editor-first2= John K. |editor-last2= Fairbank |publisher= Harvard Univ. Press}} * {{cite book |last=Maenchen-Helfen |first=Otto |author-link=Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen |title=The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrUdgzSICxcC |date=1973 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, CA |isbn=978-0-520-01596-8 |edition=1st |access-date=18 February 2015 }} [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CrUdgzSICxcC Internet Archive] * {{Citation | last1 =Mallory | first1 =J. P. | author-link =J. P. Mallory | last2 =Mair | first2 =Victor H. | author2-link =Victor H. Mair | year =2000 | title =The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West | place =London | publisher =Thames & Hudson}}. * {{cite journal |last1=Neparáczki |first1=Endre |last2=Maróti |first2=Zoltán |display-authors=1 |date=12 November 2019 |title=Y-chromosome haplogroups from Hun, Avar and conquering Hungarian period nomadic people of the Carpathian Basin |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=9 |issue=16569 |page= 16569|bibcode= 2019NatSR...916569N|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53105-5 |pmc=6851379 |pmid=31719606 |ref={{harvid|Neparáczki et al.|2019}}}} * {{cite book |last=Pearce |first=Scott |title=Northern Wei (386-534): A New Form of Empire in East Asia |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2023 }} * {{cite journal |last=Pritsak |first=O. |year=1959 |title=XUN Der Volksname der Hsiung-nu |language=de |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=5 |pages=27–34}} * {{cite journal |last=Psarras |first=Sophia-Karin |title=Han and Xiongnu: A Reexamination of Cultural and Political Relations |journal=Monumenta Serica |volume=51 |year=2003 |pages=55–236 |jstor=40727370 |s2cid=156676644 |doi=10.1080/02549948.2003.11731391}} * {{cite journal |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |year=1994 |title=Ji Hu: Indigenous Inhabitants of Shaanbei and Western Shanxi |journal=Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz |volume=19 |pages=499–531 |url=https://cedar.wwu.edu/easpress/18/ }} * {{cite journal |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/2008/ec25_pulleyblank.pdf |title=Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organization of the Zhou Polity |journal=Early China |volume=25 |issue=25 |pages=1–27 |year=2000 |doi=10.1017/S0362502800004259 |s2cid=162159081 |access-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118181857/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/2008/ec25_pulleyblank.pdf |archive-date=18 November 2017 }} * {{cite journal|last= Schuessler|first= Axel|title= Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words|journal= Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text|series= Language and Linguistics Monograph Series|issue= 53|publisher= Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica|location= Taipei, Taiwan|year= 2014|url= http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf|access-date= 27 December 2021|archive-date= 7 June 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210607101617/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Studies%20in%20Chinese%20and%20Sino-Tibetan%20Linguistics.pdf}} * {{cite web |last=Sims-Williams |first=Nicholas |year=2004 |title=The Sogdian ancient letters. Letters 1, 2, 3, and 5 translated into English. |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/sogdlet.html }} *{{cite web|author=State Hermitage Museum|year=2007|url=http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html|title=Prehistoric Art - Early Nomads of the Altaic Region|publisher=The Hermitage Museum|access-date=31 July 2007|archive-date=22 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622035146/http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_7.html}} * {{Cite book |last=Tang |first=Changru |script-title=zh:《魏晋南北朝史论丛》 |publisher=[[Commercial Press]] |date=December 2010 |isbn=978-7-100-07451-3 |location=Beijing |language=zh}} Chapters: ** 〈魏晋杂胡考 一 屠各〉 ** 〈魏晋杂胡考 四 乌丸〉 ** 〈魏晋杂胡考 二 卢水胡〉 * {{cite book |editor-last=Whitehouse |editor-first=Ruth |title=Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDJdDwAAQBAJ |date=2016 |publisher=[[Macmillan Education]] |isbn=978-1-349-07589-8 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Wink |first=A. |year=2002 |title=Al-Hind: making of the Indo-Islamic World |publisher=Brill |isbn=0-391-04174-6}} * {{cite book |last=Yap |first=Joseph P. |year=2009 |title=Wars with the Xiongnu: A translation from Zizhi tongjian |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4490-0604-4}} AuthorHouse. {{refend}}
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