Editing Neoliberalism (section)

=== Mass incarceration ===
{{quote box|The invisible hand of the market and the iron fist of the state combine and complement each other to make the lower classes accept desocialized wage labor and the social instability it brings in its wake. After a long eclipse, the prison thus returns to the frontline of institutions entrusted with maintaining the social order.|source=—[[Loïc Wacquant]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Loïc |last=Wacquant |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |editor-last=Roulleau-Berger |editor-first=Laurence |title=Youth and work in the post-industrial city of North America and Europe |location=Leiden; Boston |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2003 |orig-year=2001 |isbn=9789004125339 |oclc=896997072 |chapter=Labour market insecurity and the criminalization of poverty |chapter-url={{Google books|fFJh8wZlDIAC|page=411|plainurl=yes}} |page=411}}</ref> |width=35% |align=right |quoted=1 |salign=right}}

Several scholars have linked [[Incarceration in the United States|mass incarceration of the poor in the United States]] with the rise of neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=3, 346}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Hadar |last=Aviram |date=September 7, 2014 |title=Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions, Neoliberalism, and Public Choice |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol42/iss2/2/ |journal=[[Fordham Urban Law Journal]] |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |access-date=December 27, 2014 |ssrn=2492782}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=130–132}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Marie |last=Gottschalk |author-link=Marie Gottschalk |title=Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2014 |isbn=978-0691164052 |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}</ref> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}{{sfnp|Harvey|2005|p=}} According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social [[welfare state]] and the rise of punitive [[workfare]], whilst increasing [[gentrification]] of urban areas, [[privatization]] of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic [[deregulation]] and the rise of underpaid, [[precarity|precarious wage labor]].{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Devin Z. |last=Shaw |url=http://notes-taken.blogspot.com/2010/09/loic-wacquant-prisons-of-poverty.html |title=Loïc Wacquant: "Prisons of Poverty" |website=The Notes Taken |date=September 29, 2010}}</ref> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the [[upper class]] and corporations such as [[fraud]], [[embezzlement]], [[insider trading]], credit and [[insurance fraud]], [[money laundering]] and violation of commerce and labor codes.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |title=The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age |date=August 1, 2011 |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%C3%AFc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |access-date=July 17, 2018 |website=[[openDemocracy]] |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115704/https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%c3%afc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Richard |last1=Mora |first2=Mary |last2=Christianakis |title=Feeding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Convergence of Neoliberalism, Conservativism, and Penal Populism |journal=[[Journal of Educational Controversy]] |publisher=Woodring College of Education, [[Western Washington University]] |url=http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=jec |access-date=February 23, 2014}}</ref>

[[File:U.S. incarceration rates 1925 onwards.png|thumb |upright=1.15|[[United States incarceration rate]] per 100,000 population, 1925–2014<ref name=cpusa2010>{{cite report |date=December 2011 |id=[[National Criminal Justice Reference Service|NCJ]] [http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?iid=2237&ty=pbdetail 236319] |title=Correctional Populations in the United States, 2010 |first=Lauren E. |last=Glaze |publisher=[[US Bureau of Justice Statistics]] |url=http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus10.pdf}} See page 2 for an explanation of the difference between the number of prisoners in custody and the number under jurisdiction. See appendix table 3 for "Estimated number of inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails per 100,000 U.S. residents, by sex, race and Hispanic/Latino origin, and age, June 30, 2010". See appendix table 2 for "Inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails, December 31, 2000, and 2009–2010."</ref><ref name=cpusa2013>{{cite report |id=[[National Criminal Justice Reference Service|NCJ]] [http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5177 248479] |title=Correctional Populations in the United States, 2013 |date=December 2014 |publisher=[[U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics]] |first1=Lauren E. |last1=Glaze |first2=Danielle |last2=Kaeble |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus13.pdf}} See page 1 "HIGHLIGHTS" section for the "1 in ..." numbers. See table 1 on page 2 for adult numbers. See table 5 on page 6 for male and female numbers. See appendix table 5 on page 13, for "Estimated number of persons supervised by adult correctional systems, by correctional status, 2000–2013." See appendix table 2: "Inmates held in custody in state or federal prisons or in local jails, 2000 and 2012–2013".</ref>]]

In expanding upon Wacquant's thesis, sociologist and political economist John L. Campbell of [[Dartmouth College]] suggests that through [[Private prison|privatization]] the prison system exemplifies the centaur state. He states that "on the one hand, it punishes the lower class, which populates the prisons; on the other hand, it profits the upper class, which owns the prisons, and it employs the middle class, which runs them." In addition, he argues that the prison system benefits corporations through outsourcing, as inmates are "slowly becoming a source of low-wage labor for some US corporations". Both through privatization and outsourcing, Campbell argues, the penal state reflects neoliberalism.<ref name="campbell">{{cite journal |title=Neoliberalism's penal and debtor states |first=John L. |last=Campbell |journal=[[Theoretical Criminology]] |date=2010 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=59–73 |doi=10.1177/1362480609352783 |s2cid=145694058}}</ref>{{rp|61}} Campbell also argues that while neoliberalism in the United States established a penal state for the poor, it also put into place a debtor state for the middle class and that "both have had perverse effects on their respective targets: increasing rates of incarceration among the lower class and increasing rates of indebtedness—and recently home foreclosure—among the middle class."<ref name="campbell"/>{{rp|68}}

[[David McNally (professor)|David McNally]], Professor of Political Science at [[York University]], argues that while expenditures on social [[welfare spending|welfare programs]] have been cut, expenditures on prison construction have increased significantly during the neoliberal era, with California having "the largest prison-building program in the history of the world".<ref name=McNally>{{cite book |last=McNally |first=David |title=Global Slump: The Economics and Politics of Crisis and Resistance |year=2011 |publisher=Spectre |isbn=978-1-60486-332-1 |url=http://secure.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p=271 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_JiLYpjUlAIC&pg=PA119 119] |access-date=March 10, 2015 |archive-date=September 7, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907002629/https://secure.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p=271 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The scholar [[Bernard Harcourt]] contends the neoliberal concept that the state is inept when it comes to [[economic regulation]], but efficient in policing and punishing "has facilitated the slide to mass incarceration".<ref>Scott Horton (September 8, 2011). [http://harpers.org/blog/2011/09/the-illusion-of-free-markets-six-questions-for-bernard-harcourt/ The Illusion of Free Markets: Six Questions for Bernard Harcourt]. ''[[Harper's Magazine]].'' Retrieved December 27, 2014.</ref> Both Wacquant and Harcourt refer to this phenomenon as "Neoliberal Penality".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marginality, ethnicity and penality in the neo-liberal city: an analytic cartography |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |last=Wacquant |journal=[[Ethnic and Racial Studies]] |date=2014 |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=1687–711 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2014.931991 |url=http://www.loicwacquant.net/assets/Papers/MARGINALITYETHNICITYPENALITY-Article-ERS.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010112131/http://www.loicwacquant.net/assets/Papers/MARGINALITYETHNICITYPENALITY-Article-ERS.pdf |archive-date=October 10, 2015 |citeseerx=10.1.1.694.6299 |s2cid=144879355}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.law.uchicago.edu/video/harcourt-neoliberal-penality |first=Bernard |last=Harcourt |title=Neoliberal Penality: A Genealogy of Excess |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231122651/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/video/harcourt-neoliberal-penality |archive-date=December 31, 2016 |website=[[University of Chicago Law School]] |date=May 21, 2009}}</ref>