Editing History of India (section)

== Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526) ==
{{Main|Medieval India}}
{{see also|Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent}}
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=53}}

=== Delhi Sultanate ===
{{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries.<ref name="delhi">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156530/Delhi-sultanate Delhi Sultanate], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref> The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html|title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India|last=Bartel|first=Nick|year=1999|website=The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html|archive-date=12 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The subsequent [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]] of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. The [[Khalji dynasty]] conquered much of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become [[vassal state]]s.<ref name="delhi" />

The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of [[Urdu]] was born during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, [[Razia Sultana]] ({{reign|1236|1240}}).

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–52}} However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Richard Eaton (2000), [https://web.archive.org/web/20150406011408/http://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/3/283.extract Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States], Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp. 283–319</ref>

The [[Mongol invasions of India]] were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of [[Alauddin Khalji]]. A major factor in their success was their Turkic [[Mamluk]] slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–51}} By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}} the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp = 50–51}}

A [[Turco-Mongol]] conqueror from Central Asia, [[Timur]] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultan [[Mahmud Shah II|Nasir-u Din Mehmud]] of the [[Tughlaq dynasty]] in Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|title=Timur – conquest of India|website=Gardenvisit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the [[sayyid]]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson|pages=445–446}}</ref> The sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the [[Sayyid dynasty|Sayyid]] and [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]] dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi until the defeat of the last sultan, [[Ibrahim Khan Lodi]], [[First Battle of Panipat|in 1526]] to the forces of [[Babur]].<ref>{{Encyclopaedia Islamica|title=Delhi Sultanate|url=https://referenceworks.brill-com/display/entries/ISLO/COM-037181.xml?rskey=FlvuV6|first1=Huda Seyyed|last1=Hussein-zadeh|first2=Isabel|last2=Miller|translator-first=Mushegh|translator-last=Asatryan|date=2018}}</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Qutb minar ruins.jpg|[[Qutb Minar]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], whose construction was begun by [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], the first Sultan of Delhi.
|File:Nizamuddin Dargah and Jamaat Khana Masjid, Delhi.jpg|[[Dargah]]s of [[Suffism|Sufi]]-saint [[Nizamuddin Auliya]], and poet and musician [[Amir Khusro]] in Delhi.
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=== Vijayanagara Empire ===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire}}
[[File:Sangamas of the Vijayanagara Empire.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the [[Sangama dynasty]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] ]]
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by [[Harihara I]] and his brother [[Bukka Raya I]] of [[Sangama Dynasty]],<ref>''History of Classical Sanskrit Literature'': by M. Srinivasachariar p. 211</ref> which originated as a political heir of the [[Hoysala Empire]], [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Empire]],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=28–29}} and the [[Pandyan Empire]].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=239}} The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off [[Islamic invasions of India|Islamic invasions]] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the [[Deccan sultanates]]. The empire is named after its capital city of [[Vijayanagara]], whose ruins surround present day [[Hampi]], now a [[World Heritage Site]] in Karnataka, India.<ref>''South India'' by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p. 32</ref>

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of [[Arcot]], the [[Reddy]]s of Kondavidu, and the [[Madurai Sultanate|Sultan of Madurai]] and had gained control over [[Goa]] in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna [[doab]] in the north.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=170–171}}{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=317}}

[[Harihara II]], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the [[Krishna River]] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref>The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to {{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, [[Deva Raya I]], emerged successful against the [[Gajapatis]] of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref>From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Bowman|editor-first=John Stewart|year=2000|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=271|isbn=0-231-11004-9}}</ref> [[Deva Raya II]] succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=244}} He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Quilon]] in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of [[Myanmar|Burma]] at [[Pegu]] and [[Tanintharyi Division|Tanasserim]].<ref>From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=245}})</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=173}}<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p. 11)</ref>

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref>From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. ({{harvnb|Kamath|1980|p=189}})</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526|s2cid=163090404}}</ref> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of [[Shiva]]), but made grants to the [[Vaishnava]] order of [[Sringeri]] with [[Vidyaranya]] as their patron saint, and designated ''[[Varaha]]'' (an [[avatar]] of Vishnu) as their emblem.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=188-189}} Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|page=50|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> The later [[Saluva]] and [[Tuluva]] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord [[Venkateshwara]] (Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|pages=41, 43|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref>{{cite book|last=Wagoner|first=Phillip B.|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=John. M.|editor2-last=Michell|editor2-first=George|year=2001|chapter=Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas|title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|publisher=Marg Publications|page=14|isbn=81-85026-53-X}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the [[dvaita]] order (philosophy of dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]] at [[Udupi]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=189}}

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| Photograph of the ruins of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] at [[Hampi]], now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868<ref>"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241 UNESCO World Heritage List].</ref>
|File:Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their [[war elephants]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html|title=Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables|publisher=Vijayanagara.org|date=9 February 2014|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517222359/http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/Ele_Stables.html|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|File:Krishna Pushkarani - Hampi Ruins.jpg|Vijayanagara marketplace at [[Hampi]], along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
|File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi
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The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] founded the famous [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics]] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like [[Parameshvara]], [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] and [[Jyeṣṭhadeva]].<ref>''History of Science and Philosophy of Science'' by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p. 91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)'' by Satish Chandra pp. 188–189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>''Art History'', Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p. 243</ref>

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the [[Battle of Talikota]] (1565). After the death of [[Aliya Rama Raya]] in the Battle of Talikota, [[Tirumala Deva Raya]] started the [[Aravidu dynasty]], moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=100–101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=li–lii}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=101–115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Kingdom]], [[Keladi Nayaka]], [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Nayaks of Tanjore]], [[Nayakas of Chitradurga]] and [[Nayaks of Gingee|Nayak Kingdom of Gingee]]&nbsp;– all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}

=== Other kingdoms ===
{{Main|Guhila dynasty|Kingdom of Mewar}}
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=130|File:Tower of victory.jpg
|[[Vijaya Stambha]] (Tower of Victory).
|File:Temple in Rajasthan.jpg|Temple inside [[Chittorgarh fort]]
|File:Man Singh Palace as viewed in the early hours of the morning.JPG|Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the [[Gwalior fort]]
|File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|Chinese manuscript ''Tribute Giraffe with Attendant'', depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan [[Saifuddin Hamza Shah]] of Bengal to the [[Yongle Emperor]] of [[Ming China]]
|File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education
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For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the [[Chero dynasty]] ruled much of Eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] from the 12th to the 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71|title=Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn=9789352667697|last1=Singh|first1=Pradyuman|date=19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Surendra Gopal|title=Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCZFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-03416-6|pages=289–295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Surinder Singh|author2=I. D. Gaur|title=Popular Literature and Pre-modern Societies in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC&pg=PA77|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1358-7|pages=77–}}</ref> The [[Reddy dynasty]] successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from [[Cuttack]] in the north to [[Kanchi]] in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gordon Mackenzie|title=A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10|year=1990|orig-year=First published 1883|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0544-2|pages=9–10, 224–}}</ref>

In the north, the [[Rajput kingdoms]] remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The [[Mewar dynasty]] under [[Maharana Hammir]] defeated and captured [[Muhammad Tughlaq]] with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the [[Punjab]]. The [[Tomaras of Gwalior|Tomaras]] established themselves at [[Gwalior]], and [[Man Singh Tomar]] reconstructed the [[Gwalior Fort]].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-93-80607-34-4|pages=116–117}}</ref> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and [[Rana Kumbha]] expanded his kingdom at the expense of the [[Sultan]]ates of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]] and [[Sultanate of Gujarat|Gujarat]].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>''Lectures on Rajput history and culture'' by Dr. [[Dasharatha Sharma]]. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. {{ISBN|0-8426-0262-3}}.</ref> The next great Rajput ruler, [[Rana Sanga]] of Mewar, became the principal player in [[Northern India]]. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the [[Battle of Khanwa]] consolidated the new [[Mughal dynasty]] in India.<ref name="sen2" /> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana [[Udai Singh II]] faced further defeat by Mughal emperor [[Akbar]], with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded [[Udaipur]], which became the new capital of the [[Udaipur State|Mewar kingdom]]. His son, [[Maharana Pratap]] of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the [[Chittor Fort]].<ref>John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</ref>

In the south, the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] in the Deccan, born from a [[Rebellion of Ismail Mukh|rebellion]] in 1347 against the [[Tughlaq dynasty]],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=41–42}} was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five [[Deccan sultanates]]; [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmadnagar]] declared independence, followed by [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] and [[Berar sultanate|Berar]] in the same year; [[Golconda Sultanate|Golkonda]] became independent in 1518 and [[Bidar Sultanate|Bidar]] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-first=R. C.|editor-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1974|title=The Mughul Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VII|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=412}}</ref> Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=George|first2=Mark|last2=Zebrowski|title=Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|location=Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ|isbn=0-521-56321-6|page=10}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=98}}

In the East, the [[Gajapati Kingdom]] remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under [[Kapilendradeva]], Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower [[Ganga]] in the north to the [[Kaveri]] in the south.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=R. C.|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|title=The Delhi Sultanate|url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/367/mode/1up|year=1980|orig-year=First published 1960|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VI|edition=3rd|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|oclc=664485|pages=367|quote=[Describing the Gajapati kings of Orissa] Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.}}</ref> In [[Northeast India]], the [[Ahom Kingdom]] was a major power for six centuries;<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Yasmin Saikia]]|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8|date=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2|page=8}}</ref> led by [[Lachit Borphukan]], the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the [[Battle of Saraighat]] during the [[Ahom-Mughal conflicts]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Sarkar|first=J.N.|contribution=Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|volume=2|publisher=Assam Publication Board|place=Guwahati|year=1992|page=213}}</ref> Further east in Northeastern India was the [[Kingdom of Manipur]], which ruled from their seat of power at [[Kangla Fort]] and developed a sophisticated Hindu [[Gaudiya Vaishnavite]] culture.{{Sfn|Williams|2004|pp=83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela}}{{Sfn|Massey|2004|p=177}}{{Sfn|Devi|1990|pp=175–180}}

The [[Sultanate of Bengal]] was the dominant power of the [[Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta]], with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a [[Sunni Muslim]] monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and [[Bengali Muslim]] elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of [[vassal states]], including [[Odisha]] in the southwest, [[Arakan]] in the southeast, and [[Tripura]] in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over [[Kamarupa|Kamrup]] and [[Kamata Kingdom|Kamata]] in the northeast and [[Jaunpur district|Jaunpur]] and [[Bihar]] in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct [[Architecture of Bengal|Bengali style.]] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the [[history of Bengal]]. Its decline began with an [[interregnum]] by the [[Suri Empire]], followed by [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Bengal Subah|conquest]] and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

=== Bhakti movement and Sikhism ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement|Buddhism in India|Sikhism}}
{{See also|History of Sikhism}}
The Bhakti movement refers to the [[theism|theistic]] devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} and later revolutionised in [[Sikhism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johar|first1=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality|date=1999|publisher=MD Publications|isbn=978-81-7533-093-1|page=89}}</ref> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}}
* The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as [[Vaishnavism]] (Vishnu), [[Shaivism]] (Shiva), [[Shaktism]] (Shakti goddesses), and [[Smartism]].<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'' (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8146-5856-7}}, pp. 562–563</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], Encyclopædia Britannica; [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects The Four Denomination of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113071854/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=13 January 2020 }} Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] of [[Dvaita]] to absolute [[monism]] of [[Advaita Vedanta]].{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=2}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Novetzke|first=Christian|s2cid=144065168|year=2007|title=Bhakti and Its Public|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=11|issue=3|pages=255–272|jstor=25691067|doi=10.1007/s11407-008-9049-9}}</ref>
* Sikhism is a [[monotheistic]] and [[panentheistic]] religion based on the spiritual teachings of [[Guru Nanak]], the first Guru,<ref>Singh, Patwant (2000). ''The Sikhs''. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. p. 17. {{ISBN|0-375-40728-6}}.</ref> and the ten successive [[Sikh gurus]]. After the death of the tenth Guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]], the Sikh scripture, [[Guru Granth Sahib]], became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<ref>Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), ''Historical Dictionary of Sikhism'', 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-3600-4}}, p. 17</ref><ref>William James (2011), ''God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston'', McGill Queens University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-3889-4}}, pp. 241–242</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Gurinder Singh|year=2001|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture|url=https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann/page/n33 21]}}</ref>
* [[Buddhism in India]] flourished in the [[Himalaya]]n kingdoms of [[Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh|Namgyal Kingdom]] in [[Ladakh]], [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim Kingdom]] in [[Sikkim]], and [[Chutia Kingdom]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] of the Late medieval period.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180|File:Rang Ghar Sibsagar.jpg|[[Rang Ghar]], built by [[Pramatta Singha]] in [[Ahom kingdom]]'s capital [[Sibsagar|Rangpur]], is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent
|File: Chittorgarh fort.JPG| [[Chittor Fort]] is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]]
|File:Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg|[[Ranakpur Jain temple]] was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of [[Mewar]]
|File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|[[Gol Gumbaz]] built by the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine [[Hagia Sophia]]
}}