Editing Meditation (section)

=="Challenging" and adverse effects==
{{Main|Effects of meditation#Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness|l1=Adverse effects and limits of meditation and mindfulness}}

===Contemplative traditions===
Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed as ''[[zouhuorumo]]'' ({{lang-zh|走火入魔}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maciocia |first=Giovanni |title=The Psyche in Chinese Medicine, Treatment of Emotional and Mental Disharmonies with Acupuncture and Chinese Herbs |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |year=2009 |isbn=9780702047770}}</ref><ref name="Lee 421–472">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Sing |date=1996-12-01 |title=Cultures in psychiatric nosology: The CCMD-2-R and International Classification of Mental Disorders |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00117087 |journal=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=421–472 |doi=10.1007/BF00117087 |pmid=8989986 |issn=1573-076X}}</ref>

Meditation may induce "challenging"<ref group="web" name="nhs.Bazian" />{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}}{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} and "unwanted"{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} experiences, and adverse effects to physical and [[Mental health|mental health.]]<ref name="Lee 421–472"/>  Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions,{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}} but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of  meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no support or explanatory framework publicly for novice or laity that is easily accessible for a practitioner to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on the adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .{{sfnp|Lindahl|Fisher|Cooper|2017}}<ref group="web" name="nhs.Bazian" /><ref group="web" name="Ivtzan_2016_PT" /><ref group="web" name="Farias_2015_Independent" />

According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} or altered sense of self or the world,{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Yadav  | first1=J. | last2= Bhardwaj | first2=A. | last3= Jangid | first3=P.| last4= Singh | first4=P. | last5= Gupta | first5=R. | title= Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence | journal= The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease | volume=211 | issue=8 |  year=2023 | pages=634–638  |  pmid=37505896 |doi= 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656 |url=https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/abstract/2023/08000/meditation_a_slippery_slope_for_psychosis__a_case.12.aspx}}</ref>

According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors."{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation,{{sfnp|Chan-Ob|Boonyanaruthee|1999}} preceding mental dispositions,{{sfnp|Chan-Ob|Boonyanaruthee|1999}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}} and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems"{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}){{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}}{{sfnp|Goud|2022}} Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible  that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and  depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020|p=388}}

According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general."{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020}} Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice.{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}}

The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences.{{sfnp|Farias|Maraldi|Wallenkampf|Lucchetti|2020|p=388}}{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences,"{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}} and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."{{sfnp|Schlosser|Sparby|Vörös|Jones|2019}}

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process.{{sfnp|Vörös|2016|p=69}}{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}} According to Salguero,
{{Blockquote|Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}}}}

The [[Visuddhimagga]] mentions various unpleasant stages, and possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in ''Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages'', a practical manual on [[vipassanā]] meditation by [[Mahāsi Sayādaw]].{{sfnp|Vörös|2016|p=69}} Classical sources mention ''[[makyō]]'', Zen sickness ({{CJKV|c=禪病|j=禪病|p=Chánbìng|r=Zenbyō}})<ref group=web name="nhs.Bazian"/> and related difficulties, such as ''[[zouhuorumo]]'' ({{lang-zh|c=走火入魔|l=fire possession|labels=no}}), and ''mojing'' ({{lang-zh|c=魔境|l=demonic states|labels=no}}).{{sfnp|Salguero|2023}} Traditional sources also precribe cures against these experiences,{{sfnp|Salguero|2023|p=180}} for example [[Hakuin Ekaku#Zen-sickness and vital energy|Hakuin Ekaku's treatment of Zen-sickness]].{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

===Mindfulness===
Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Farias | first1=M | last2=Wikholm | first2=C | title=Has the science of mindfulness lost its mind? | journal=BJPsych Bulletin| volume=40 | issue=6 | year=2016 | pmid=28377813 | pages=329–332 | doi=10.1192/pb.bp.116.053686 | pmc=5353526 }}</ref><ref>''The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You?'' by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 {{ISBN|978-1-78028-718-8}}</ref><ref>''Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism'' by  T. Joiner, 2017 {{ISBN|0-19-020062-6}}</ref><ref>''McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality'' by  R. Purser, 2019 {{ISBN|1-912248-31-X}}</ref> Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hafenbrack | first1= A. C. | last2=LaPalme | first2=M. L. | last3=Solal | first3=I. | title=Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation | journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology  | volume=123 | issue=1 | year=2022 | pmid=34941333 | pages=28–54 | doi=10.1037/pspa0000298 |url= https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fpspa0000298 }}</ref> Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of [[selfishness]]. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Poulin | first1=M. J. | last2=Ministero | first2=L. M.  | last3=Gabriel | first3=S. | last4=Morrison | first4=C. D. | last5=Naidu | first5=E. | title= Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals | journal= Psychological Science | volume=32 | issue=11 | year=2021 | pmid= 34705576 | pages=1699–1708 | doi= 10.1177/09567976211015184 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09567976211015184}}</ref> These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20220302-how-mindfulness-can-make-you-a-darker-person |title=How mindfulness can make you a darker person |website=bbc.com |date=2022-03-03 |access-date=2024-07-09 }}</ref>