Editing Lichen (section)

== References ==
{{Reflist
|refs =

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<ref name=Beltman1980>{{cite journal |vauthors=Beltman IH, ((de Kok LJ)), ((Kuiper PJC)), ((van Hasselt PR)) |year = 1980 |title=Fatty acid composition and chlorophyll content of epiphytic lichens and a possible relation to their sensitivity to air pollution |journal=Oikos |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=321–326 |doi=10.2307/3544647 |jstor=3544647 |bibcode = 1980Oikos..35..321B }}</ref>

<ref name=Beschel1950>{{cite journal | author = Beschel RE | year = 1950 | title = Flecten als altersmasstab Rezenter morainen |journal = Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie | volume = 1 | pages = 152–161 }}</ref>

<ref name=Budel1996>{{cite book |author1 = Büdel, B. |author2=Scheidegger, C. |year = 1996| chapter = Thallus morphology and anatomy |title = Lichen Biology |pages = 37–64 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511790478.005 |isbn=9780511790478 }}</ref>

<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/pronunciation/english/lichen |title=Lichen |publisher=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>

<ref name=Casselman1999>{{cite book |author1=Casselman, Karen Leigh |author2=Dean, Jenny |title=Wild color: [the complete guide to making and using natural dyes] |publisher=Watson-Guptill Publications |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8230-5727-6 |url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/wildcolor00dean }}</ref>

<ref name=Cook1995>{{cite book |last1=Cook |first1=Rebecca |last2=McFarland |first2=Kenneth |year=1995 |title=General Botany 111 Laboratory Manual |location=Knoxville, TN |publisher=University of Tennessee |page=104}}</ref>

<ref name=Dobson>{{cite book |last=Dobson |first=F.S. |year=2011 |title=Lichens, an illustrated guide to the British and Irish species |publisher=Richmond Publishing Co. |location=Slough, UK |isbn=9780855463151 }}</ref>

<ref name=Eichorn2005>Eichorn, Susan E., Evert, Ray F., and Raven, Peter H. (2005). ''Biology of Plants''. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p.&nbsp;1. {{ISBN|0716710072}}.</ref>

<ref name="Emmerich1993">{{cite journal |vauthors=Emmerich R, Giez I, Lange OL, Proksch P |year=1993 |title=Toxicity and antifeedant activity of lichen compounds against the polyphagous herbivorous insect ''Spodoptera littoralis'' |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=1389–1394 |doi=10.1016/0031-9422(93)85097-B |bibcode=1993PChem..33.1389E }}</ref>

<ref name=ferry>Ferry, B. W., Baddeley, M. S. & Hawksworth, D. L. (editors) (1973) ''Air Pollution and Lichens''. Athlone Press, London.</ref>

<ref name=Fletcher2004>{{cite journal | author1 = Fletcher, B. J. | author2 = Beerling, D. J. |author-link2 = David Beerling| author3 = Chaloner, W. G. | year = 2004 | title = Stable carbon isotopes and the metabolism of the terrestrial Devonian organism ''Spongiophyton'' | journal = Geobiology | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–119 | doi = 10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00026.x
| bibcode = 2004Gbio....2..107F | s2cid = 85079041 }}</ref>

<ref name=Friedl1996>{{cite encyclopedia |chapter=Photobionts |title=Lichen Biology |pages=9–26 |author-last1=Friedl |author-first1=T. |author-last2=Büdel |author-first2=B. |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=T.H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-45368-4 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511790478.003 }}</ref>

<ref name=Gargas1995>{{cite journal |last1=Gargas |first1=A |first2= PT |first3= M |first4= A |date=1995 |title=Multiple origins of lichen symbioses in fungi suggested by SSU rDNA phylogeny |journal=Science |volume=268 |issue=5216 |pages=1492–1495 |doi=10.1126/science.7770775 |pmid=7770775 |bibcode = 1995Sci...268.1492G |last2=Depriest |last3=Grube |last4=Tehler |s2cid=563601 }}</ref>

<ref name=Hawksworthrose1976>Hawksworth, D.L. and Rose, F. (1976) ''Lichens as pollution monitors''. Edward Arnold, Institute of Biology Series, No. 66. {{ISBN|0713125551}}</ref>

<ref name=Hawksworth1988>{{cite journal | author = Hawksworth, D.L. | year = 1988 | title = The variety of fungal-algal symbioses, their evolutionary significance, and the nature of lichens | journal = Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 96 |pages = 3–20 |doi = 10.1111/j.1095-8339.1988.tb00623.x | s2cid = 49717944 }}</ref>

<ref name=Honegger1998>{{cite journal |author=Honegger R. |year=1998 |title=The lichen symbiosis – what is so spectacular about it? |journal=Lichenologist |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=193–212 |doi=10.1017/s002428299200015x |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/154903/1/ZORA_NL_154903.pdf |access-date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426111514/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/154903/1/ZORA_NL_154903.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Honegger1988>{{cite encyclopedia |chapter=Mycobionts |title=Lichen Biology |author-last1=Honegger |author-first1=R. |year=1988 |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=T.H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |publication-date=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-45368-4 }}</ref>

<ref name=Honegger2000>{{cite journal |author=Honegger R. |title=Simon Schwender (1829–1919) and the dual hypothesis in lichens |journal=Bryologist |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=307–313 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745(2000)103[0307:SSATDH]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0007-2745 | jstor = 3244159 |year=2000 |s2cid=84580224 }}</ref>

<ref name=Jahren2003>{{cite journal | author = Jahren, A.H. | author2 = Porter, S. | author3 = Kuglitsch, J.J. | title = Lichen metabolism identified in Early Devonian terrestrial organisms | journal = Geology | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–102 | doi = 10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0099:LMIIED>2.0.CO;2 | issn = 0091-7613 | bibcode=2003Geo....31...99J |year = 2003 | s2cid = 49241170 }}</ref>

<ref name=Karatygin2009>{{cite journal |author1=Karatygin IV |author2=Snigirevskaya NS |author3=Vikulin SV. |year=2009 |title=The most ancient terrestrial lichen ''Winfrenatia reticulata'' : A new find and new interpretation |journal=Paleontological Journal |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=107–114 |doi=10.1134/S0031030109010110 |bibcode=2009PalJ...43..107K |s2cid=85262818 }}</ref>

<ref name=Karatygin2007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Karatygin IV, Snigirevskaya NS, Vikulin SV |date=2007 |title=Two types of symbiosis with participation of Fungi from Early Devonian Ecosystems |journal=XV Congress of European Mycologists, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 16–21 September 2007. |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=226 |url=http://vimeo.com/20073764 |access-date=18 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424225041/http://vimeo.com/20073764 |archive-date=24 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Kirk pp.378-81">{{cite book |vauthors=Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA |title=Dictionary of the Fungi. |edition=10th |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |date=2008|pages=378–381|isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref>

<ref name=Knops1991>{{cite journal |date=1991 |title=Mineral cycling and epiphytic lichens: Implications at the ecosystem level |journal=Lichenologist |volume=23 |pages=309–321 |doi=10.1017/S0024282991000452 |issue=3|last1=Knops |first1=J.M.H. |last2=Nash |first2=T. H. III |last3=Boucher |first3=V.L. |last4=Schlesinger |first4=W.H. |s2cid=86133860 }}</ref>

<ref name=Lutzoni_2004>{{cite journal|last1=Lutzoni|first1=F. |last2=Kauff|first2=F. |last3=Cox|first3=C. J. |last4=McLaughlin|first4=D. |last5=Celio|first5=G. |last6=Dentinger|first6=B. |last7=Padamsee|first7=M. |last8=Hibbett|first8=D. |last9=James|first9=T. Y. |last10=Baloch|first10=E. |last11=Grube|first11=M. |last12=Reeb|first12=V. |last13=Hofstetter|first13=V. |last14=Schoch|first14=C. |last15=Arnold|first15=A. E. |last16=Miadlikowska|first16=J. |last17=Spatafora|first17=J. |last18=Johnson|first18=D. |last19=Hambleton|first19=S. |last20=Crockett|first20=M. |last21=Shoemaker|first21=R. |last22=Sung|first22=G.-H. |last23=Lucking|first23=R. |last24=Lumbsch|first24=T. |last25=O'Donnell|first25=K. |last26=Binder|first26=M. |last27=Diederich|first27=P. |last28=Ertz|first28=D. |last29=Gueidan|first29=C. |last30=Hansen|first30=K. |last31=Harris|first31=R. C. |last32=Hosaka|first32=K. |last33=Lim|first33=Y.-W. |last34=Matheny|first34=B. |last35=Nishida|first35=H. |last36=Pfister|first36=D. |last37=Rogers|first37=J. |last38=Rossman|first38=A. |last39=Schmitt|first39=I. |last40=Sipman|first40=H. |last41=Stone|first41=J. |last42=Sugiyama|first42=J. |last43=Yahr|first43=R. |last44=Vilgalys|first44=R. |title=Assembling the fungal tree of life: progress, classification, and evolution of subcellular traits |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=91 |issue=10 |year=2004 |pages=1446–1480 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1446 |display-authors=8 |pmid=21652303|s2cid=9432006 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Morris2007">{{cite book |vauthors=Morris J, Purvis W |title=Lichens (Life) |publisher=The Natural History Museum |location=London |date=2007 |page=19 |isbn=978-0-565-09153-8 }}</ref>

<ref name=Nash2008>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Nash III |author-first=Thomas H. |chapter=Lichen sensitivity to air pollution |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=T.H. |title=Lichen Biology |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2008 |pages=299–314 |isbn=978-0-521-69216-8 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511790478.016}}</ref>

<ref name=Nash2008-intro>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Nash III |author-first=Thomas H. |chapter=Introduction |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=T.H. |title=Lichen Biology |pages=1–8 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-69216-8 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511790478.002}}</ref>

<ref name=Oksanen2006>{{cite journal |last1=Oksanen |first1=I. |date=2006 |title=Ecological and biotechnological aspects of lichens |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=723–734 |pmid=17082931 |doi= 10.1007/s00253-006-0611-3|s2cid=12172616 }}</ref>

<ref name=Peterson2000>{{cite journal |author=Peterson EB. |date=2000 |title=An overlooked fossil lichen (Lobariaceae) |journal=Lichenologist |volume=32 |issue= 3|pages=298–300 |doi=10.1006/lich.1999.0257|bibcode=2000ThLic..32..298P |s2cid=83629248 }}</ref>

<ref name=Poinar1992>{{cite book |title=Life in Amber |last=Poinar Jr., GO.|date=1992 |publisher=Stanford University Press }}</ref>

<ref name=Retallack1994>{{cite journal | author = Retallack GJ. | date = 1994 | title = Were the Ediacaran Fossils Lichens? | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 523–544 | jstor=2401233 | doi=10.1017/s0094837300012975| bibcode = 1994Pbio...20..523R | s2cid = 129180481 }}</ref>

<ref name=Retallack2007>{{cite journal | author = Retallack GJ. | date = 2007 | title = Growth, decay and burial compaction of Dickinsonia, an iconic Ediacaran fossil | journal = Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 215–240| doi = 10.1080/03115510701484705| bibcode = 2007Alch...31..215R | s2cid = 17181699 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name=Rikkinen1995>{{cite journal |author=Rikkinen J. |date=1995 |title=What's behind the pretty colors? A study on the photobiology of lichens |doi=10.2307/3244316
|journal=Bryobrothera |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=375–376|jstor=3244316 }}</ref>

<ref name=rosehawksworth>{{cite journal | author = Rose C. I., Hawksworth D. L. | date = 1981 | title = Lichen recolonization in London's cleaner air | journal = Nature | volume = 289 | issue = 5795| pages = 289–292 | doi = 10.1038/289289a0 |bibcode = 1981Natur.289..289R | s2cid = 4320709 }}</ref>

<ref name=Sancho2007>{{cite journal| author = Sancho, L. G.| author2 = De La Torre, R. | author3 = Horneck, G. | author4 = Ascaso, C. | author5 = De Los Rios, A. | author6 = Pintado, A. | author7 = Wierzchos, J. | author8 = Schuster, M.| date = 2007| title = Lichens survive in space: results from the 2005 LICHENS experiment| journal = Astrobiology| volume = 7| issue = 3| pages = 443–454 | doi = 10.1089/ast.2006.0046| pmid = 17630840| bibcode=2007AsBio...7..443S| s2cid = 4121180 }}</ref>

<ref name=Schoch2009>{{cite journal |author1=Schoch CL |author2=Sung GH |author3=López-Giráldez F |author4=Townsend JP |author5=Miadlikowska J |author6=Hofstetter V |author7=Robbertse B |author8=Matheny PB |author9=Kauff F |author10=Wang Z |author11=Gueidan C |author12=Andrie RM |author13=Trippe K |author14=Ciufetti LM |author15=Wynns A |author16=Fraker E |author17=Hodkinson BP |author18=Bonito G |author19=Groenewald JZ |author20=Arzanlou M |author21=de Hoog GS |author22=Crous PW |author23=Hewitt D |author24=Pfister DH |author25=Peterson K |author26=Gryzenhout M |author27=Wingfield MJ |author28=Aptroot A |author29=Suh SO |author30=Blackwell M |author31=Hillis DM |author32=Griffith GW |author33=Castlebury LA |author34=Rossman AY |author35=Lumbsch HT |author36=Lücking R |author37=Büdel B |author38=Rauhut A |author39=Diederich P |author40=Ertz D |author41=Geiser DM |author42=Hosaka K |author43=Inderbitzin P |author44=Kohlmeyer J |author45=Volkmann-Kohlmeyer B |author46=Mostert L |author47=O'Donnell K |author48=Sipman H |author49=Rogers JD |author50=Shoemaker RA |author51=Sugiyama J |author52=Summerbell RC |author53=Untereiner W |author54=Johnston PR |author55=Stenroos S |author56=Zuccaro A |author57=Dyer PS |author58=Crittenden PD |author59=Cole MS |author60=Hansen K |author61=Trappe JM |author62=Yahr R |author63=Lutzoni F |author64=Spatafora JW |display-authors=8 |title=The Ascomycota tree of life: a phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits |journal=Syst. Biol. |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=224–239 |year=2009 |pmid=20525580 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp020 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Switek2012>{{cite journal | author = Switek B | date = 2012 | title = Controversial claim puts life on land 65 million years early | journal = Nature | doi = 10.1038/nature.2012.12017 | s2cid = 130305901 | url = http://www.nature.com/news/controversial-claim-puts-life-on-land-65-million-years-early-1.12017 | access-date = 2 January 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130101055756/http://www.nature.com/news/controversial-claim-puts-life-on-land-65-million-years-early-1.12017 | archive-date = 1 January 2013 | url-status = live }}</ref>

<ref name=Taylor1995>{{cite journal | author = Taylor, T. N. | author2 = Hass, H. | author3 = Remy, W. | author4 = Kerp, H. | date = 1995 | title = The oldest fossil lichen | journal = Nature | volume = 378 | issue = 6554 | page = 244 | doi = 10.1038/378244a0 | bibcode = 1995Natur.378..244T | s2cid = 4353572 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<!--unused<ref name=Taylor1997>{{cite journal |author=Taylor TN. |author2=Hass, Hagen |date=1997 |author3=Kerp, Hans |title=A cyanolichens from the Lower Devnian Rhynie chert |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=84 |issue=7 |pages=992–1004 |doi=10.2307/2446290 |jstor=2446290 |pmid=21708654|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/7c405acd6534b5ebf365fe0dd944c5a882eb5f13 }}</ref>-->

<ref name=Taylor2004>{{cite journal|journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences| doi=10.1086/422129 | title=SEM analysis of spongiophyton interpreted as a fossil lichen|vauthors=Taylor WA, Free CB, Helgemo R, Ochoada J | date=2004| volume=165| pages=875–881|issue=5| s2cid=85382155 }}</ref>

<ref name=Treub1873>Treub, Melchior (1873) Onderzoekingen over de natuur der lichenen. Dissertation Leiden University.</ref>

<ref name="urlESA - Human Spaceflight and Exploration - Lichen survives in space">{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/SEMUJM638FE_index_0.html |title=ESA – Human Spaceflight and Exploration – Lichen survives in space |access-date=2010-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226175025/http://www.esa.int/esaHS/SEMUJM638FE_index_0.html |archive-date=26 February 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="urlFossil Record of Lichens">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenfr.html |title=Fossil Record of Lichens |publisher=University of California Museum of Paleontology |vauthors=Speer BR, Waggoner B |access-date=2010-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125101841/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichenfr.html |archive-date=25 January 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Wedin2004>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wedin M, Döring H, Gilenstam G |date=2004 |title=Saprotrophy and lichenization as options for the same fungl species on different substrata: environmental plasticity and fungal lifestyles in the ''Strictis''-''Conotrema'' complex |journal=New Phytologist |volume=16 |issue= 3|pages=459–465 |doi= 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01198.x |doi-access=free |bibcode=2004NewPh.164..459W }}</ref>

<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite web |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/lichen |title=Lichen |date=17 November 2012 |publisher=spectator.co.uk |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223053140/http://www.spectator.co.uk/life/mind-your-language/8757911/lichen/ |archive-date=23 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Yuan2005>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yuan X, Xiao S, Taylor TN |title=Lichen-like symbiosis 600 million years ago |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5724 |pages=1017–1020 |date=2005 |pmid=15890881 |doi=10.1126/science.1111347 |bibcode = 2005Sci...308.1017Y |s2cid=27083645 }}</ref>
}}

{{Commons category|Lichens}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lichens| ]]
[[Category:Cryptogams]]
[[Category:Polyextremophiles]]
[[Category:Oligotrophs]]
[[Category:Bioindicators]]
[[Category:Mycology]]
[[Category:Symbiosis]]
[[Category:Polyphyletic groups]]