Editing Chinese characters (section)

== Reform and standardization ==
{{See also|Simplified Chinese characters|Traditional Chinese characters}}
[[File:ROC24 SC1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The first official list of simplified character forms, published in 1935 and including 324 characters{{sfn|Chen|1999|p=153}}]]
Attempts to reform and standardize the use of characters—including aspects of form, stroke order, and pronunciation—have been undertaken by states throughout history. Thousands of [[simplified characters]] were standardized and adopted in mainland China during the 1950s and 1960s, with most either already existing as common variants, or being produced via the systematic simplification of their components.{{sfn|Zhou|2003|pp=60–67}} After World War II, the Japanese government also simplified hundreds of character forms, including some simplifications distinct from those adopted in China.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|pp=117–118}} Orthodox forms that have not undergone simplification are referred to as ''[[traditional characters]]''. Across Chinese-speaking polities, mainland China, Malaysia, and Singapore use simplified characters, while Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau use traditional characters.{{sfn|Li|2020|p=136}} In general, Chinese and Japanese readers can successfully identify characters from all three standards.{{sfn|Wang|2016|p=171}}

Prior to the 20th century, reforms were generally conservative and sought to reduce the use of simplified variants.{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=404}} During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an increasing number of intellectuals in China came to see both the Chinese writing system and the lack of a national spoken dialect as serious impediments to achieving the mass literacy and mutual intelligibility required for the country's successful modernization. Many began advocating for the replacement of Literary Chinese with a written language that more closely reflected speech, as well as for a mass simplification of character forms, or even the total [[Romanization of Chinese|replacement of characters with an alphabet]] tailored to a specific spoken variety. In 1909, the educator and linguist [[Lufei Kui]] formally proposed the adoption of simplified characters in education for the first time.{{sfnm|Zhou|2003|1pp=xvii–xix|Li|2020|2p=136}}

In 1911, the [[Xinhai Revolution]] toppled the Qing dynasty, and resulted in the establishment of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] the following year. The early Republican era (1912–1949) was characterized by growing social and political discontent that erupted into the 1919 [[May Fourth Movement]], catalysing the replacement of Literary Chinese with [[written vernacular Chinese]] over the subsequent decades. Alongside the corresponding spoken variety of [[Standard Chinese]], this written vernacular was promoted by intellectuals and writers such as [[Lu Xun]] and [[Hu Shih]].{{sfn|Zhou|2003|pp=xviii–xix}} It was based on the [[Beijing dialect]] of [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]],{{sfn|DeFrancis|1972|pp=11–13}} as well as on the existing body of vernacular literature authored over the preceding centuries, which included [[Classic Chinese Novels|classic novels]] such as ''[[Journey to the West]]'' ({{cx|1592}}) and ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' (mid-18th century).{{sfnm|Zhong|2019|1pp=113–114|Chen|1999|2pp=70–74, 80–82}} At this time, character simplification and phonetic writing were being discussed within both the ruling [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) party, as well as the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP). In 1935, the Republican government published the first official list of simplified characters, comprising 324 forms collated by [[Peking University]] professor [[Qian Xuantong]]. However, strong opposition within the party resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=150–153}}

=== People's Republic of China ===
{{mim |direction=vertical |width=100px
| image1=們-order.gif |caption1=Traditional ({{zhi|t=們}})
| image2=们-order.gif |caption2=Simplified ({{zhi|s=们}})
| footer=Comparison between character forms, showing systematic simplification of the component {{lang|zh|⾨}} ('gate')
}}
The project of script reform in China was ultimately inherited by the Communists, who resumed work following the [[proclamation of the People's Republic of China]] in 1949. In 1951, Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] ordered the formation of a Script Reform Committee, with subgroups investigating both simplification and alphabetization. The simplification subgroup began surveying and collating simplified forms the following year,{{sfn|Bökset|2006|p=26}} ultimately publishing a [[Chinese Character Simplification Scheme|draft scheme of simplified characters and components]] in 1956. In 1958, Zhou Enlai announced the government's intent to focus on simplification, as opposed to replacing characters with [[Hanyu Pinyin]], which had been introduced earlier that year.{{sfn|Zhong|2019|pp=157–158}} The 1956 scheme was largely ratified by a [[General List of Simplified Chinese Characters|revised list of {{val|2235}} characters]] promulgated in 1964.{{sfn|Li|2020|p=142}} The majority of these characters were drawn from conventional abbreviations or ancient forms with fewer strokes.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=154–156}} The committee also sought to reduce the total number of characters in use by merging some forms together.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=154–156}} For example, {{zhc|c=雲|l=cloud}} was written as {{zhi|c=云}} in oracle bone script. The simpler form remained in use as a loangraph meaning 'to say'; it was replaced in its original sense of 'cloud' with a form that added a semantic {{lang|zh|⾬}} ('rain') component. The simplified forms of these two characters have been merged into {{zhi|s=云}}.{{sfn|Zhou|2003|p=63}}

A [[second round of simplified characters]] was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by the public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=155–156}} The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=159–160}} With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end.{{sfn|Chen|1999|pp=196–197}} The ''Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese'' was published in 1988 and included {{val|7000}} simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised ''[[List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese]]'', which specified {{val|2500}} common characters and {{val|1000}} less common characters.{{sfnm|Zhou|2003|1p=79|Chen|1999|2p=136}} In 2013, the ''[[List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters]]'' was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it includes a total of {{val|8105}} characters.{{sfn|Li|2020|pp=145–146}}

=== Japan ===
{{Main|Japanese script reform}}
{{Further|Differences between Shinjitai and Simplified characters}}
[[File:CJK 次 glyph variants.svg|upright=0.8|thumb|Regional forms of the character {{hani|次}} in the Noto Serif typeface family. From left to right: forms used in mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong (top), and in Japan and Korea (bottom)]]
After World War II, the Japanese government instituted its own program of orthographic reforms. Some characters were assigned simplified forms called {{tlit|ja|[[shinjitai]]}}; the older forms were then labelled {{tlit|ja|[[kyūjitai]]}}. Inconsistent use of different variant forms was discouraged, and lists of characters to be taught to students at each grade level were developed. The first of these was the {{val|1850}}-character [[Tōyō kanji|{{tlit|ja|tōyō}} kanji]] list published in 1946, later replaced by the {{val|1945}}-character [[Jōyō kanji|{{tlit|ja|jōyō}} kanji]] list in 1981. In 2010, the {{tlit|ja|jōyō}} kanji were expanded to include a total of {{val|2136}} characters.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=275}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 November 2010 |script-title=ja:改定常用漢字表、30日に内閣告示 閣議で正式決定 |trans-title=The amended list of ''jōyō kanji'' receives cabinet notice on 30th: to be officially confirmed in cabinet meeting |url=http://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXNASDG22043_U0A121C1CR0000/ |work=The Nikkei |language=ja}}</ref> The Japanese government restricts characters that may be used in names to the {{tlit|ja|jōyō}} kanji, plus an additional list of 983 [[Jinmeiyō kanji|{{tlit|ja|jinmeiyō}} kanji]] whose use are historically prevalent in names.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 September 2017 |script-title=ja:人名用漢字に「渾」追加 司法判断を受け法務省 改正戸籍法施行規則を施行、計863字に |trans-title="渾" added to kanji usable in personal names; Ministry of Justice enacts revised Family Registration Law Enforcement Regulations following judicial ruling, totaling 863 characters |url=https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLASDG24H0N_U7A920C1000000/ |work=The Nikkei |language=ja}}</ref>{{sfn|Lunde|2008|pp=82–84}}

=== South Korea ===
Hanja are still used in South Korea, though not to the extent that kanji are used in Japan. In general, there is a trend toward the exclusive use of hangul in ordinary contexts.{{sfn|Hannas|1997|p=48}} Characters remain in use in place names, newspapers, and to disambiguate homophones. They are also used in the practice of calligraphy. Use of hanja in education is politically contentious, with official policy regarding the prominence of hanja in curricula having vacillated since the country's independence.{{sfn|Hannas|1997|pp=65–66, 69–72}}{{sfn|Choo|O'Grady|1996|p=ix}} Some support the total abandonment of hanja, while others advocate an increase in use to levels previously seen during the 1970s and 1980s. Students in grades 7–12 are presently taught with a principal focus on simple recognition and attaining sufficient literacy to read a newspaper.{{sfn|Fischer|2004|pp=189–194}} The South Korean Ministry of Education published the ''[[Basic Hanja for Educational Use]]'' in 1972, which specified {{val|1800}} characters meant to be learned by secondary school students.{{sfn|Lunde|2008|p=84}} In 1991, the [[Supreme Court of Korea]] published the ''Table of Hanja for Use in Personal Names'' ({{lang|ko|인명용 한자}}; {{tlit|ko|Inmyeong-yong Hanja}}), which initially included {{val|2854}} characters.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2014|p=179}} The list has been expanded several times since; {{As of|2022|lc=yes}}, it includes {{val|8319}} characters.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 December 2021 |script-title=ko:乻(땅이름 늘)·賏(목치장 영)... '인명용 한자' 40자 추가된다 |trans-title=乻 · 賏... 40 ''Hanja for Use in Personal Names'' added |url=https://www.chosun.com/national/court_law/2021/12/26/OZCAQQTHSFANXKF4UU2C7GEBQM |work=The Chosun Ilbo |language=ko}}</ref>

=== North Korea ===
In the years following its establishment, the North Korean government sought to eliminate the use of hanja in standard writing; by 1949, characters had been almost entirely replaced with hangul in North Korean publications.{{sfnm|Handel|2019|1p=113|Hannas|1997|2pp=66–67}} While mostly unused in writing, hanja remain an important part of North Korean education. A 1971 textbook for university history departments contained {{val|3323}} distinct characters, and in the 1990s North Korean schoolchildren were still expected to learn {{val|2000}} characters.{{sfn|Hannas|1997|pp=67–68}} A 2013 textbook appears to integrate the use of hanja in secondary school education.<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 March 2014 |script-title=ko:북한의 한문교과서를 보다 |trans-title=A look at North Korea's "Literary Chinese" textbooks |url=http://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=155532 |work=Chosun NK |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo |language=ko}}</ref> It has been estimated that North Korean students learn around {{val|3000}} hanja by the time they graduate university.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kim |first=Mi-young |author-mask=Kim Mi-young (김미영) |date=4 June 2001 |script-title=ko:'3000자까지 배우되 쓰지는 마라' |trans-title="Learn up to 3000 characters, but don't write them" |url=https://nk.chosun.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=7252 |work=Chosun NK |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo |language=ko}}</ref>

=== Taiwan ===
The ''[[Chart of Standard Forms of Common National Characters]]'' was published by Taiwan's Ministry of Education in 1982, and lists {{val|4808}} traditional characters.{{sfn|Lunde|2008|p=81}} The Ministry of Education also compiles dictionaries of characters used in [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]].{{efn-ua |{{multiref| {{Cite book |url=https://sutian.moe.edu.tw/zh-hant/introduction/ |publisher=Taiwan Ministry of Education |year=2024 |script-title=zh:常用詞辭典 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan |chapter=Introduction}} | {{Cite book |url=https://hakkadict.moe.edu.tw/introduction/ |publisher=Taiwan Ministry of Education |year=2023 |script-title=zh:客語辭典 |trans-title=Dictionary of Taiwan Hakka |chapter=Introduction}} }} }}

=== Other regional standards ===
Singapore's Ministry of Education promulgated three successive rounds of simplifications. The first round in 1969 included 502 simplified characters, and the second round in 1974 included {{val|2287}} simplified characters—including 49 that differed from those in the PRC, which were ultimately removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted the revisions made in mainland China in 1986.{{sfn|Shang|Zhao|2017|p=320}}

The Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau's ''[[List of Graphemes of Commonly-Used Chinese Characters]]'' includes {{val|4762}} traditional characters used in elementary and junior secondary education.{{sfn|Chen|1999|p=161}}