Editing China (section)

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of China}}
[[File:China Population Density, 2000 (6171905307).jpg|thumb|right|Population density map of the People's Republic of China (2000)]]

The [[2020 Chinese census]] recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.<ref name="2020_census2">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511104840/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |archive-date=11 May 2021 |access-date=11 May 2021 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref> Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.<ref name="2020_census2" />

Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Kızlak |first=Kamuran |date=21 June 2021 |title=Çin'de üç çocuk: Siz yapın, biz bakalım |trans-title=Three children in China: You do it, we'll see |url=https://www.birgun.net/haber/cin-de-uc-cocuk-siz-yapin-biz-bakalim-349097 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120012/https://www.birgun.net/haber/cin-de-uc-cocuk-siz-yapin-biz-bakalim-349097 |archive-date=16 August 2022 |website=[[BirGün]] |language=Turkish}}</ref> The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 December 2013 |title=China formalizes easing of one-child policy |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/12/28/china-one-child-policy/4230785 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a [[two-child policy]].<ref name="Birtles-2021">{{Cite news |last=Birtles |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Birtles |date=31 May 2021 |title=China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-31/china-introduces-three-child-policy/100179832 |access-date=31 May 2021 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]}}</ref> A [[three-child policy]] was announced on 31 May 2021, due to [[Aging of China|population aging]],<ref name="Birtles-2021" /> and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=21 July 2021 |title=China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/21/china-scraps-fines-for-families-violating-childbirth-limits.html |access-date=29 April 2022 |work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> In 2023, the [[total fertility rate]] was reported to be 1.09, ranking [[List of countries by total fertility rate|among the lowest in the world]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Qi |first=Liyan |date=19 August 2023 |title=China's Fertility Rate Dropped Sharply, Study Shows |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/china/chinas-fertility-rate-dropped-sharply-study-shows-e97e647f |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2023, [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ng |first=Kelly |date=17 January 2023 |title=China's population falls for first time since 1961 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-64300190 |access-date=17 January 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth<ref name="Wang Judge">{{Cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Wang |last2=Yong |first2=Cai |last3=Gu |first3=Baochang |date=2012 |title=Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy? |url=http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Population and Development Review]] |volume=38 |pages=115–129 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606203524/http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2019 |access-date=16 May 2018}}</ref> or total population size.<ref name="Whyte">{{Cite journal |last1=Whyte |first1=Martin K. |last2=Wang |first2=Feng |last3=Cai |first3=Yong |date=2015 |title=Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[The China Journal]] |volume=74 |pages=144–159 |doi=10.1086/681664 |pmc=6701844 |pmid=31431804 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> However, these scholars have been challenged.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goodkind |first=Daniel |date=2017 |title=The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions |journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]] |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=1375–1400 |doi=10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x |pmid=28762036 |s2cid=13656899 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] at birth.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Parry |first=Simon |date=9 January 2005 |title=Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |access-date=22 October 2012 |work=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2007a">{{Cite news |date=12 January 2007 |title=Chinese facing shortage of wives |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6254763.stm |access-date=23 March 2009 |work=BBC News}}</ref> The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.<ref name="NBS China-2021">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 4) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817189.html |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref> However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 October 2011 |title=Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911115321/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |archive-date=11 September 2011 |access-date=19 May 2023 |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]]}}</ref>

=== Urbanization ===
{{See also|List of cities in China|List of cities in China by population|Megalopolises in China}}
[[File:China Top 10 Biggest Cities.png|thumb|Map of the ten [[List of cities in China by population|largest cities]] in China (2010)]]
China [[Urbanization in China|has urbanized]] significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 67% in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urban population (% of total) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN |access-date=28 May 2018 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref><ref name="Economist-2014">{{Cite news |date=16 April 2014 |title=Where China's future will happen |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2014/04/16/where-chinas-future-will-happen |access-date=18 February 2023 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 January 2025 |title=中国人口连续三年下降 去年减少139万人 |trans-title=China's population has declined for three consecutive years, with a decrease of 1.39 million people last year |url=https://www.zaobao.com.sg/realtime/china/story20250117-5747402 |access-date=18 January 2025 |work=[[Lianhe Zaobao]]}}</ref> China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,<ref>{{Cite news |last=FlorCruz |first=Jaime A. |date=20 January 2012 |title=China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge |url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/20/world/asia/china-florcruz-urban-growth/index.html |access-date=18 February 2015 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> including the 18 [[Megacity|megacities]] {{As of|2024|lc=y}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Maggie Hiufu |title=Megacities and more: A guide to China's most impressive urban centers |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/china-top-megacities/index.html |access-date=26 October 2020 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=张洁 |title=Chongqing, Chengdu top new first-tier cities by population |url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202106/15/WS60c84b56a31024ad0bac6db4.html |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=China Daily}}</ref> (cities with a population of over 10 million) of [[Chongqing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Beijing]], [[Chengdu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Tianjin]], [[Xi'an]], [[Suzhou]], [[Zhengzhou]], [[Wuhan]], [[Hangzhou]], [[Linyi]], [[Shijiazhuang]], [[Dongguan]], [[Qingdao]], [[Changsha]] and [[Hefei]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=17 Chinese cities have a population of over 10 million in 2021 |url=https://www.ecns.cn/news/cns-wire/2022-05-26/detail-ihaytawr8118445.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=www.ecns.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China's Hefei Is Fourth City in Yangtze River Delta Region With Over 10 Million Residents |url=https://www.yicaiglobal.com/news/hefei-becomes-the-18th-city-in-china-with-a-population-of-10-million |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=www.yicaiglobal.com |language=en}}</ref> The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.<ref>{{Cite web |last=孙迟 |title=China's inland rides waves of innovation, new opportunities |url=https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202205/27/WS62902a26a310fd2b29e5f516.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=global.chinadaily.com.cn |quote=Chengdu and Chongqing are now two of the only four cities (the other two are Beijing and Shanghai) in China with populations of more than 20 million.}}</ref> Shanghai is China's [[List of cities in China by population|most populous urban area]]<ref name="Demographia2013">{{Cite book |last=Demographia |url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |title=Demographia World Urban Areas |date=March 2013 |edition=9th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501024602/http://demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="oecd">{{Cite book |url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-china-2015_9789264230040-en#page39 |title=OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015 |date=18 April 2015 |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |isbn=978-9-2642-3003-3 |page=37 |doi=10.1787/9789264230040-en |archive-date=2017-03-27  |access-date=2019-09-03  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327210032/http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-china-2015_9789264230040-en#page39 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while Chongqing is its [[List of largest cities|largest city proper]], the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.<ref name="renamed_from_2015_on_20160214005959">{{Cite web |date=28 January 2016 |script-title=zh:2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人 继续保持增长态势 |url=http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129083111/http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm |archive-date=29 January 2016 |access-date=13 February 2016 |publisher=Chongqing News |language=zh |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large "[[floating population]]s" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;<ref name="Ref_abce">Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". ''The Straits Times''. 22 September 2000.</ref> the figures below include only long-term residents.

{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China|class=info}}

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in China|Ethnic minorities in China|Ethnic groups in Chinese history}}
[[File:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967]]

China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. The largest of these nationalities are the [[Han Chinese]], who constitute more than 91% of the total population.<ref name="2020_census2" /> The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lilly |first=Amanda |date=7 July 2009 |title=A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/08/AR2009070802718.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209112957/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |archive-date=9 December 2013 |access-date=19 May 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> – outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excluding [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], [[Xinjiang]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse |title=China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change |date=2011 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-7425-6784-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse/page/102 102] |url-access=registration}}</ref> [[Linxia City|Linxia]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Bo |last2=Druijven |first2=Peter |last3=Strijker |first3=Dirk |date=17 September 2017 |title=A tale of three cities: negotiating ethnic identity and acculturation in northwest China |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08873631.2017.1375779 |journal=Journal of Cultural Geography |language=en |publication-place=[[University of Groningen]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=44–74 |doi=10.1080/08873631.2017.1375779 |issn=0887-3631 |quote=The major Muslim groups in Linxia are the Hui and the Dongxiang, accounting for 31.6% and 26.0% of the population, respectively, while the Han group makes up 39.7% (The Sixth National Census).}}</ref> and [[autonomous prefecture]]s like [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture|Xishuangbanna]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecosystem services and management of Long Forest created by Dai Indigenous People in Xishuangbanna, China |url=https://cases.open.ubc.ca/ecosystem-services-and-management-of-long-forest-created-by-dai-indigenous-people-in-xishuangbanna-china |access-date=23 February 2024 |website=Open Case Studies |publication-place=[[University of British Columbia]]}}</ref> Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.<ref name="2020_census2" /> Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.<ref name="2020_census2" /> The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 8) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817193.html |access-date=22 April 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of China|List of endangered languages in China}}
[[File:Lihaozhai High School - P1360829.JPG|thumb|left|A sign at a high school in [[Jianshui]], Yunnan, written in [[Hani language|Hani]] using the Latin alphabet, [[Nisu language|Nisu]] using the [[Yi script]], and Chinese.]]

There are as many as 292 [[living language]]s in China.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CN Languages of China] – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International.</ref> The languages most commonly spoken belong to the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic branch]] of the [[Sino-Tibetan language family]], which contains [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (spoken by 80% of the population),<ref>{{Cite news |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin |last1=Zhao |first1=E'nuo |last2=Wu |first2=Yue |date=16 October 2020 |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |access-date=15 September 2023 |work=People's Daily}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kaplan |first1=Robert B. |title=Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters |last2=Baldauf |first2=Richard B. |year=2008 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-8476-9095-1 |page=42}}</ref> and [[Varieties of Chinese|other varieties]] of [[Chinese language]]: [[Jin Chinese|Jin]], [[Wu Chinese|Wu]], [[Min Chinese|Min]], [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], [[Yue Chinese|Yue]], [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]], [[Gan Chinese|Gan]], [[Huizhou Chinese|Hui]], [[Pinghua|Ping]] and unclassified Tuhua ([[Shaozhou Tuhua]] and [[Xiangnan Tuhua]]).<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong |page=8 |year=2012 |trans-title=Language Atlas of China |edition=2nd |title-link=Language Atlas of China |orig-date=1987 |script-title=zh:中国语言地图集 |place=Beijing |volume=1: Dialects |isbn=978-7-100-07054-6}}</ref> Languages of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman branch]], including [[Lhasa Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Qiang language|Qiang]], [[Naxi language|Naxi]] and [[Nuosu language|Yi]], are spoken across the [[Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan]] and [[Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau]]. Other ethnic minority languages in [[southwestern China]] include [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Kam language|Dong]] and [[Sui language|Sui]] of the [[Kra–Dai languages|Tai-Kadai family]], [[Hmongic language|Miao]] and [[Mienic languages|Yao]] of the [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien family]], and [[Wa language|Wa]] of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic family]]. Across [[Northeast China|northeastern]] and [[northwestern China]], local ethnic groups speak [[Altaic languages]] including [[Manchu language|Manchu]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and several [[Turkic languages]]: [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Salar language|Salar]] and [[Western Yugur language|Western Yugur]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Li Yang |date=17 November 2015 |title=Yugur people and Sunan Yugur autonomous county |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/gansu/2015-11/17/content_22479011.htm |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=China Daily}}</ref> [[Korean language|Korean]] is spoken natively along the border with [[North Korea]]. [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]], the language of [[Chinese Tajiks|Tajiks in western Xinjiang]], is an [[Indo-European language]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joo |first1=Ian |last2=Hsu |first2=Yu-Yin |date=September 2021 |title=A Preliminary Survey of Linguistic Areas in East Asia Based on Phonological Features |url=https://kb.osu.edu/items/a24b1342-748d-44da-a314-faa4d24ca8cb |journal=Buckeye East Asian Linguistics |language=en-US |publication-place=Hong Kong Polytechnic University |volume=5 |pages=58 |issn=2378-9387 |quote=Sarikoli, an Indo-European language spoken in northwestern China, shows some connection to Turkic languages (Kazakh and Uyghur) spoken nearby. |via=Ohio State University Knowledge Bank}}</ref> [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]], including a small population on the mainland, speak [[Austronesian languages]].<ref name="language">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130725061022/http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm "Languages"]. 2005. Government of China. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref>

[[Standard Chinese]], a variety based on the [[Beijing dialect]] of Mandarin, is the national language of China, having de facto official status.<ref name="Adamson & Feng"/> It is used as a [[lingua franca]] between people of different linguistic backgrounds.<ref name="langlaw">{{Cite law |date=31 October 2000 |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No. 37) |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |archive-date=24 July 2013 |access-date=21 June 2013 |publisher=Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China |quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.}}</ref> In the [[autonomous regions of China]], other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dwyer |first=Arienne M. |title=The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse |year=2005 |publisher=East-West Center Washington |isbn=978-1-9327-2828-6 |pages=43–44}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in China}}
[[File:Distribution of religions in China.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Geographic distribution of religions in China:<br/><ref name="map1">{{Cite map |last=Dumortier |first=Brigitte |title=Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires |map=Religions en Chine |language=fr |year=2002 |publisher=Autrement |series=Atlas/Monde |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135523/http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017 |isbn=2-7467-0264-9 |map-url=http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg |p=34}}</ref><ref name="map2">{{Cite map |title=Narody Vostochnoi Asii |trans-title=Ethnic Groups of East Asia |map=Religions in China |year=1965 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135600/http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017 |map-url=http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg}} ''Zhongguo Minsu Dili'' [Folklore Geography of China], 1999; ''Zhongguo Dili'' [Geography of China], 2002.</ref><ref name="map3">{{Cite map |author-mask=Gao Wende (高文德) |editor-last=Gao |editor-first=Wende |script-title=zh:中国少数民族史大辞典 |trans-title=Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History |map=Religions in China |language=zh |year=1995 |publisher=Jilin Education Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135641/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017 |map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg}}</ref><ref name="map4">{{Cite map |editor-last=Yin |editor-last2=Li |editor-last3=Guo |editor-first=Haishan |editor-first2=Yaozong |editor-first3=Jie |editor-mask=Xin Haishan (殷海山); |editor-mask2=Li Yaozong (李耀宗); |editor-mask3=Guo Jie (郭洁) |script-title=zh:中国少数民族艺术词典 |trans-title=Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary |map=Religions in China |language=zh |year=1991 |publisher=National Publishing House (民族出版社) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135713/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017 |map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg}}</ref><br/>{{colorbull|#C00000}} [[Chinese folk religion]] (including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and groups of [[Chinese Buddhism]])<br/>{{colorbull|#FFFF00}} [[Buddhism]] ''tout court''<br/>{{colorbull|#008000}} [[Islam in China|Islam]]<br/>{{colorbull|#FF00FF}} [[Religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions]]<br/>{{colorbull|#00CCFF}} [[Mongolian folk religion]]<br/>{{colorbull|#00FF00}} [[Northeast China folk religion]] influenced by Tungus and [[Manchu shamanism]]; widespread [[Shanrendao]]]]
[[Freedom of religion]] is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.<ref name="Constitution"/> The government of the country is officially [[atheist]]. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the [[United Front Work Department]].<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=zh:国家宗教事务局 |trans-title=National Religious Affairs Administration |url=https://www.sara.gov.cn/ |publisher=Chinese Government |language=zh}}</ref>

Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "[[three teachings|three doctrines]]" of [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] have historically shaped Chinese culture,<ref name="Yao2011">{{Cite book |last=Yao |first=Xinzhong |title=Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach |publisher=A&C Black |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-8470-6475-2 |location=London |pages=9–11 |author-link=Xinzhong Yao}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=James |title=Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-8510-9626-8 |page=57}}</ref> enriching a [[Chinese theology|theological and spiritual framework]] of traditional religion which harks back to the early [[Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty]]. [[Chinese folk religion]], which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,<ref>Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in {{Cite book |last=Xie |first=Zhibin |title=Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China |publisher=Ashgate |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7546-5648-7 |page=73}}</ref> consists in allegiance to the ''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'', who can be [[deities]] of the surrounding nature or [[progenitor|ancestral principles]] of human groups, concepts of civility, [[culture hero]]es, many of whom feature in [[Chinese mythology]] and history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Teiser |first=Stephen F. |title=Religions of China in Practice |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1996 |editor-last=Lopez |editor-first=Donald S. Jr. |chapter=The Spirits of Chinese Religion |chapter-url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |via=Asia for Educators Online, Columbia University}}. Extracts in ''[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts]''.</ref> Amongst the most popular [[cult (religious practice)|cults]] of folk religion are those of the [[Yellow Emperor]], embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two [[Yan Huang Zisun|divine patriarchs]] of the Chinese people,<ref name="Laliberte2011">{{Cite journal |last=Laliberté |first=André |year=2011 |title=Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization |url=http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/415/413 |journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=7 |doi=10.1177/186810261104000201 |s2cid=30608910 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sautman |first=Barry |author-link=Barry Sautman |title=The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-9-6220-9443-7 |editor-last=Dikötter |editor-first=Frank |pages=80–81 |chapter=Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China}}</ref> of [[Mazu]] (goddess of the seas),<ref name="Laliberte2011" /> [[Guandi]] (god of war and business), [[Caishen]] (god of prosperity and richness), [[Pangu]] and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults—formally recognizing them as "folk beliefs" as distinguished from doctrinal religions,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2019 |title=The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Global Diversities |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |last=Wang |first=Xiaoxuan |editor-last=Dean |editor-first=Kenneth |pages=137–164 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-89369-3_7 |isbn=978-3-0300-7751-8 |contribution='Folk Belief', Cultural Turn of Secular Governance and Shifting Religious Landscape in Contemporary China |editor-last2=Van der Veer |editor-first2=Peter |s2cid=158975292 |contribution-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325765161}}</ref> and often reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" [[civil religion]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Johnson (writer) |date=21 December 2019 |title=China's New Civil Religion |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/opinion/sunday/chinas-religion-xi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419190905/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/opinion/sunday/chinas-religion-xi.html |archive-date=19 April 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>—as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/201111TheChineseStatesGlobalPromotionOfBuddhism.pdf |title=The Chinese State's Global Promotion of Buddhism |last1=Ashiwa |first1=Yoshiko |last2=Wank |first2=David L. |publisher=Berkley Center, Georgetown University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216051017/https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/201111TheChineseStatesGlobalPromotionOfBuddhism.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2021 |url-status=live |year=2020 |series=The Geopolitics of Religious Soft Power |number=4}}</ref> China is home to many of the [[list of statues by height|world's tallest religious statues]], representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is the [[Spring Temple Buddha]] in [[Henan]].

[[File:中国道教 拜章昇疏 01.jpg|thumb|Taoism has served as a state religion several times throughout Chinese history]]
Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices.<ref name="Yao2011" /> Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable as [[non-theistic]] and [[humanistic]], since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Adler |first=Joseph A. |year=2011 |title=The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |conference=Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to studies published in 2023, compiling demographic analyses conducted throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believed in or practiced Chinese folk religion—among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion.<ref name=religion2023/> Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents of [[Christianity]], and 1.6% are adherents of [[Islam]].<ref name=religion2023/> Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety of [[Chinese salvationist religions|salvationist doctrinal organized movements]] which emerged since the [[Song dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Broy |first=Nikolas |year=2015 |title=Syncretic Sects and Redemptive Societies. Toward a New Understanding of 'Sectarianism' in the Study of Chinese Religions |url=http://www.nikolas-broy.de/res/Broy%202015%20-%20syncretic%20sects%20and%20redemptive%20societies.pdf |journal=Review of Religion and Chinese Society |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=158 |doi=10.2307/2059958 |jstor=2059958 |s2cid=162946271}}</ref> There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their own [[religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|indigenous religions]], while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include [[Tibetan Buddhism]] among [[Tibetans]], [[Mongols in China|Mongols]] and [[Yugurs]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 June 2021 |title=Menjumpai etnis Yugur di atas ketinggian 3.830 mdpl puncak Bars Snow |url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/2202994/menjumpai-etnis-yugur-di-atas-ketinggian-3830-mdpl-puncak-bars-snow |access-date=23 February 2024 |work=[[Antara News]] |language=id |quote=Bedanya lagi, Yugur memeluk agama Buddha Tibet, sedangkan Uighur beragama Islam. Konon, Yugur merupakan orang-orang Uighur yang beragama Buddha yang melarikan diri ke Gansu sejak Kerajaan Khaganate Uighur tumbang pada tahun 840 Masehi.}}</ref> and Islam among the [[Hui]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]], [[Kazakhs in China|Kazakh]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=[[:nl:Lode Vanoost]] |date=10 March 2024 |title=Op bezoek bij de Oeigoeren in Xinjiang |trans-title=Visiting the Uyghurs in Xinjiang |url=https://www.dewereldmorgen.be/artikel/2024/03/10/op-bezoek-bij-de-oeigoeren-in-xinjiang |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404054333/https://www.dewereldmorgen.be/artikel/2024/03/10/op-bezoek-bij-de-oeigoeren-in-xinjiang |archive-date=4 April 2024 |work=[[DeWereldMorgen]]}}</ref> and [[Kyrgyz in China|Kyrgyz]] peoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country.

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in China|Higher education in China}}
[[File:13 Peking University.jpg|alt=|thumb|Beijing's [[Peking University]], one of the [[Rankings of universities in China|top-ranked universities in China]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 September 2020 |title=Peking University |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/peking-university |access-date=9 December 2020 |website=Times Higher Education (THE)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Overall Ranking, Best Chinese Universities Rankings – 2019 |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330045254/http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html |archive-date=30 March 2020 |access-date=9 December 2020 |website=shanghairanking.com}}</ref>]]
Compulsory education in China comprises [[primary school|primary]] and [[middle school|junior secondary school]], which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 July 2009 |title=Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319045258/https://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-date=19 March 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> The [[Gaokao]], China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and [[tertiary education|tertiary]] level.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022">{{Cite web |date=3 April 2023 |title=Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2022 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202304/t20230403_1054100.html |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2021 |title=Zheng Yali: vocational education entering a new development stage |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128011150/http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=4 March 2024 |title=MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202403/t20240311_1119782.html |access-date=23 March 2024 |website=Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China}}</ref>

China has the largest education system in the world,<ref name="UNICEF-2021">{{Cite web |date=August 2021 |title=China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia |url=https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=UNICEF |page=21}}</ref> with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.<ref name="auto"/> Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 January 2013 |title=In Education, China Takes the Lead |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/01/16/business/In-Education-China-Takes-the-Lead.html |access-date=17 June 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 May 2021 |title=MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321225632/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-date=21 March 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education (China)|Ministry of Education]]}}</ref> However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in [[Guizhou]], one of the [[List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP per capita|poorest provinces]], it only totalled ¥3,204.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roberts |first=Dexter |date=4 April 2013 |title=Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406202405/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-date=6 April 2013 |access-date=17 June 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Galtung |first1=Marte Kjær |title=49 Myths about China |last2=Stenslie |first2=Stig |date=2014 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-4422-3622-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qqqDBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189]}}</ref> to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?end=2020&locations=CN&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=1982 |access-date=4 October 2022 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref>

{{As of|2023}}, China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zou |first=Shuo |date=3 December 2020 |title=China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202012/03/WS5fc86ab2a31024ad0ba9999e.html |access-date=3 November 2021 |work=[[China Daily]]}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, China had the world's highest [[Rankings of universities in China|number of top universities]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=15 August 2023 |title=ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 Press Release |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/news/arwu/2023 |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=ShanghaiRanking}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite web |date=25 October 2022 |title=U.S. News Unveils 2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/info/blogs/press-room/articles/2022-10-25/u-s-news-unveils-2022-2023-best-global-universities-rankings |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023 ''Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities'', a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings ([[Academic Ranking of World Universities|ARWU]]+[[QS World University Rankings|QS]]+[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|THE]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Analysis {{!}} Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities 2023 |url=https://research.unsw.edu.au/artu/indicator |access-date=26 December 2023 |website=UNSW Research}}</ref> China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities ([[Tsinghua University]] and [[Peking University]]) in [[Asia]] and [[Emerging market|emerging economies]], according to the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-04 |title=World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/latest/world-ranking |access-date=2024-11-30 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2024 |access-date=2024-11-30 |website=www.shanghairanking.com}}</ref> These universities are members of the [[C9 League]], an alliance of elite [[List of universities in China|Chinese universities]] offering comprehensive and leading education.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2011 |title=Eastern stars: Universities of China's C9 League excel in select fields |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/eastern-stars-universities-of-chinas-c9-league-excel-in-select-fields/415193.article |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in China}}
{{See also|Medicine in China|Pharmaceutical industry in China}}
[[File:China, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Chart showing the rise of China's [[Human Development Index]] from 1970 to 2010]]
The [[National Health Commission]], together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What we do |url=http://en.nhc.gov.cn/2018-09/22/c_74499.htm |access-date=17 December 2023 |website=[[National Health Commission]]}}</ref> An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started the [[Patriotic Health Campaign]], which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as [[cholera]], [[typhoid]] and [[scarlet fever]], which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2015 |title=Peking University of Health Sciences |url=https://liemgthailand.com/en/peking-university-of-health-sciences |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-date=2024-08-29  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240829063439/https://liemgthailand.com/en/peking-university-of-health-sciences/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

After [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. [[Healthcare in China]] became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Lawrence |first1=Dune |last2=Liu |first2=John |date=22 January 2009 |title=China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029211403/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s |archive-date=29 October 2013 |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liu |first=Yuanli |date=1 November 2011 |title=China's Health Care Reform: Far From Sufficient |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/11/01/is-china-facing-a-health-care-crisis/chinas-health-care-reform-far-from-sufficient |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of [[Medication|pharmaceuticals]], producing around 40 percent of [[Active ingredient|active pharmaceutical ingredients]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2022 |title=The great medicines migration |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/infographics/chinavaccine-3 |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |archive-date=2024-09-29  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240929063530/https://asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/infographics/chinavaccine-3/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{As of|2023||df=US}}, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=David Daokui |author-link=David Daokui Li |title=China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict |date=2024 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0-3932-9239-8 |location=New York, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=163}} {{As of|2021||df=US}}, the [[infant mortality]] rate is 5 per thousand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=CN |access-date=28 October 2013 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.{{efn|The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 October 2009 |title=Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong |url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6776688.html |work=People's Daily}}</ref> and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.<ref name="Ref_abcu">[http://www.china.org.cn/english/19012.htm "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down"]. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>}} Rates of [[Stunted growth|stunting]], a condition caused by [[malnutrition]], have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stone |first=R. |year=2012 |title=Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern |journal=Science |volume=336 |issue=6080 |page=402 |doi=10.1126/science.336.6080.402 |pmid=22539691}}</ref> Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by [[Air pollution in China|widespread air pollution]],<ref name="FT-china-pollution">{{Cite web |last=McGregor |first=Richard |date=2 July 2007 |title=750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |access-date=22 July 2007 |website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> [[Smoking in China|hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tatlow |first=Didi Kirsten |date=10 June 2010 |title=China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=16 January 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and an increase in [[obesity]] among urban youths.<ref name="Ref_abcy">[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/dispatches/09.23.health/ "Serving the people?"]. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_abcz">[http://english.people.com.cn/english/200008/04/eng20000804_47271.html "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts"]. 4 August 2000. ''People's Daily''. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wong |first=Edward |date=1 April 2013 |title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |access-date=14 January 2020 |work=The New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Mental health in China|Chinese mental health]] services are inadequate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 February 2019 |title=Chinese mental health services falling short: report |url=https://chinaplus.cri.cn/chinaplus/news/china/9/20190225/253543.html |website=[[China Radio International|China Plus]]}}</ref> China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] in 2003, although this has since been largely contained.<ref name="Ref_abcda">[https://web.archive.org/web/20040824014230/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain"]. 18 May 2004. [[World Health Organization]]. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] was first identified in [[Wuhan]] in December 2019;<ref name="auto12">{{Cite journal |date=20 February 2020 |title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020 |url=http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf |url-status=live |journal=China CDC Weekly |volume=2 |pages=1–10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222141550/http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2020 |via=Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team |date=17 February 2020 |title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China |journal=China CDC Weekly |language=zh |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003 |pmid=32064853 |s2cid=211133882 |script-journal=zh:中华流行病学杂志}}</ref> pandemic led the government to enforce [[zero-COVID|strict public health measures]] intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after [[2022 COVID-19 protests in China|protests against the policy]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Che |first1=Chang |last2=Chien |first2=Amy Chang |last3=Stevenson |first3=Alexandra |date=7 December 2022 |title=What Has Changed About China's 'Zero Covid' Policy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/07/world/asia/china-zero-covid-changes.html |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 December 2022 |title=China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63855508 |access-date=30 June 2023 |work=BBC News}}</ref>