Editing Chess (section)

===Psychology===
There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.{{refn|Chess is even called the "[[drosophila]]" of [[cognitive psychology]] and [[artificial intelligence]] (AI) studies, because it represents the domain in which expert performance has been most intensively studied and measured.<ref>{{harvp|Grabner|Stern|Neubauer|2007|pp=398–420}}</ref>|group=note}}<ref>{{harvp|de Groot|Gobet|1996}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Gobet|de Voogt|Retschitzki|2004}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Holding|1985}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Saariluoma|1995}}</ref> [[Alfred Binet]] and others showed that [[knowledge]] and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise.<ref>{{harvp|Binet|1894}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Robbins|Anderson|Barker|Bradley|Fearnyhough|Henson|Hudson|Baddeley|1996|pp=83–93}}</ref> In his doctoral thesis, [[Adriaan de Groot]] showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position.<ref>{{harvp|de Groot|1965}}</ref> According to de Groot, this [[perception]], made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall.<ref>Richards J. Heuer Jr. ''Psychology of Intelligence Analysis'' Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency 1999 (see [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art6.html Chapter 3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912045710/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/psychology-of-intelligence-analysis/art6.html |date=12 September 2007 }}).</ref>

More recent research has focused on [[chess as mental training]]; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; [[brain imaging]] studies of chess masters and novices; [[blindfold chess]]; the role of [[Personality psychology|personality]] and [[intelligence]] in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much empirical investigation. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess.<ref>{{ cite journal
| last1= Ericsson | first1= K.A.
| last2= Krampe | first2= R. Th.
| last3= Tesch-Römer | first3= C. 
| date= 1993
|url=http://www.freakonomics.com/pdf/DeliberatePractice%28PsychologicalReview%29.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512183911/http://www.freakonomics.com/pdf/DeliberatePractice%28PsychologicalReview%29.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 May 2006 |title=The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance | journal=Psychological Review | volume= 100 | issue= 3
| pages= 363–406| doi= 10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363
| s2cid= 11187529
}}</ref> Recent research, however, fails to replicate their results and indicates that factors other than practice are also important.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Macnamara |first1=Brooke N. |last2=Maitra |first2=Megha |date=21 August 2019 |title=The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993) |journal=Royal Society Open Science|volume=6 |issue=8 |page=190327 |doi=10.1177/0963721411421922|pmid=31598236 |pmc=6731745 |s2cid=190327 }}</ref><ref name="Gobet-Fernand2011">Gobet, F. & Chassy, P. (in press). {{cite web |url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/736/1/Seasonality%20and%20chess.pdf |title=Season of birth and chess expertise. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718172434/http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/736/1/Seasonality%20and%20chess.pdf |archive-date=18 July 2011}}&nbsp;{{small|(65.8&nbsp;KB)}} ''Journal of Biosocial Science''. <br/> Gobet, F. & Campitelli, G. (2007). {{cite web |url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/611/1/Gobet_DevPsyc_Final.pdf |title=The role of domain-specific practice, handedness and starting age in chess. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808073144/http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/bitstream/2438/611/1/Gobet_DevPsyc_Final.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2007 |df=dmy-all}}&nbsp;{{small|(196&nbsp;KB)}} ''Developmental Psychology'', 43, 159–72. Both retrieved 2007-07-15.</ref>
For example, [[Fernand Gobet]] and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill.<ref name="Gobet-Fernand2011" />

A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in scientific literature as well as in popular culture. Academic studies that investigate the relationship date back at least to 1927.<ref>Djakow, I. N., Petrowski, N. W., & Rudik, P. A. (1927).

Psychologie des schachspiels.</ref> Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a positive correlation between general cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed results.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 November 2016 |title=The relationship between cognitive ability and chess skill: A comprehensive meta-analysis |journal=Intelligence |language=en |volume=59 |pages=72–83 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2016.08.002 |issn=0160-2896 |last1=Burgoyne |first1=Alexander P. |last2=Sala |first2=Giovanni |last3=Gobet |first3=Fernand |last4=MacNamara |first4=Brooke N. |last5=Campitelli |first5=Guillermo |last6=Hambrick |first6=David Z. |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/102241/1/INTELL_2016_117_The_Relationship_between_Cognitive_Ability_and_Chess_Skill_a_Comprehensive_Meta_Analysis.pdf |access-date=26 February 2020 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506054933/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/102241/1/INTELL_2016_117_The_Relationship_between_Cognitive_Ability_and_Chess_Skill_a_Comprehensive_Meta_Analysis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Campitelli |first1=Guillermo |last2=Gobet |first2=Fernand |date=5 October 2011 |title=Deliberate Practice: Necessary But Not Sufficient |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=280–285 |doi=10.1177/0963721411421922|s2cid=145572294 }}</ref>