Editing Postgraduate education (section)

===Graduate employee unions===
At many universities, graduate students are employed by their university to teach classes or do research. While all graduate employees are graduate students, many graduate students are not employees. MBA students, for example, usually pay tuition and do not have paid teaching or research positions. In many countries graduate employees have collectively organized [[labor union]]s in order to bargain a contract with their university. 

In the United States there are many graduate employee unions at public universities. The [[Coalition of Graduate Employee Unions]] lists 25 recognized unions at public universities on its website. Private universities, however, are covered under the [[National Labor Relations Act]] rather than state labor laws and until 2001 there were no recognized unions at private universities.

Many graduate students see themselves as akin to junior faculty, but with significantly lower pay.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Many graduate students feel that teaching takes time that would better be spent on research, and many point out that there is a vicious circle in the academic labor economy. Institutions that rely on cheap graduate student labor have no need to create expensive professorships, so graduate students who have taught extensively in graduate school can find it immensely difficult to get a teaching job when they have obtained their degree. Many institutions depend heavily on graduate student teaching: a 2003 report by agitators for a graduate student union at Yale,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yaleunions.org/geso/reports/BlackboardBlues.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2005-11-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060105040426/http://www.yaleunions.org/geso/reports/BlackboardBlues.pdf |archive-date=2006-01-05 }}</ref>  for instance, claims that "70% of undergraduate teaching contact hours at Yale are performed by transient teachers: graduate teachers, adjunct instructors, and other teachers not on the tenure track." The state of [[Michigan]] leads in terms of progressive policy regarding graduate student unions with five universities recognizing graduate employee unions: [[Central Michigan University]],  [[Michigan State University]], the [[University of Michigan]], [[Wayne State University]], and [[Western Michigan University]].

The [[United Auto Workers]] (under the slogan "Uniting Academic Workers") and the [[American Federation of Teachers]] are two international unions that represent graduate employees. Private universities' administrations often oppose their graduate students when they try to form unions, arguing that students should be exempt from labor laws intended for "employees". In some cases, unionization movements have met with enough student opposition to fail. At the schools where graduate employees are unionized, which positions are unionized vary. Sometimes only one set of employees will unionize (e.g. teaching assistants, residential directors); at other times, most or all will. Typically, fellowship recipients, usually not employed by their university, do not participate.

When negotiations fail, graduate employee unions sometimes go on [[strike action|strike]]. While graduate student unions can use the same types of strikes that other unions do, they have also made use of [[teach-in]]s, work-ins, marches, rallies, and ''grade strikes''. In a grade strike, graduate students refuse to grade exams and papers and, if the strike lasts until the end of the academic term, also refuse to turn in final grades. Another form of job action is known as "work-to-rule", in which graduate student instructors work exactly as many hours as they are paid for and no more.