Editing Napoleon (section)

===Criticism===
[[File:El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado thin black margin.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Third of May 1808]]'' by [[Francisco Goya]], showing Spanish resisters being executed by French troops]]
[[File:Plate L from 'An Historical Account of the Campaign in the Netherlands' by William Mudford (1817).jpg|thumb|A mass grave of soldiers killed at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]]]There is debate over whether Napoleon was "an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened despot]] who laid the foundations of modern Europe" or "a [[Narcissistic personality disorder|megalomaniac]] who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]".<ref>{{cite news |last=Hastings |first=Max |date=31 October 2014 |title=Everything is Owed to Glory |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://online.wsj.com/articles/book-review-napoleon-a-life-by-andrew-roberts-1414788232 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113133508/http://online.wsj.com/articles/book-review-napoleon-a-life-by-andrew-roberts-1414788232 |archive-date=13 November 2014}}</ref> He was compared to Adolf Hitler by [[Pieter Geyl]] in 1947{{sfnp|Geyl|1949|pp=7-10}} and [[Claude Ribbe]] in 2005.<ref>{{harvp|Dwyer|2008b}}</ref> Most modern critics of Napoleon, however, reject the Hitler comparison, arguing that Napoleon did not commit genocide and did not engage in the mass murder and imprisonment of his political opponents.{{sfnp|McLynn|1997|pp=666-67}}{{sfnp|Chandler|1973|p=xliii}} Nevertheless, [[David A. Bell]] and McLynn condemn his killing of 3,000–5,000 Turkish prisoners of war in Syria.{{sfnp|Bell|2015|pp=39-40}}{{sfnp|McLynn|1997|p=280}}

Historians have argued that his expansionist foreign policy was a major factor in the Napoleonic wars,{{sfnp|Dwyer|2015a|p=574}}<ref>Charles Esdaile (2008), ''Napoleon's Wars: An International History 1803–1815'', p. 39</ref> which cost six million lives and caused economic disruption for a generation.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Little Tyrant, A review of ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life''|publisher=The Claremont Institute|author=Hanson, Victor Davis|author-link=Victor Davis Hanson|year=2003|url=https://www.claremont.org/crb/article/the-little-tyrant/|access-date=16 October 2018|archive-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824130449/https://www.claremont.org/crb/article/the-little-tyrant/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|McLynn|1997|p=666}} McLynn and [[Correlli Barnett]] suggest that Napoleon's reputation as a military genius is exaggerated.{{sfnp|Barnett|1997|pp=41, 53, 75, 103}}{{sfnp|McLynn|1997|p=665}} Cobban and Susan P. Conner argue that Napoleon had insufficient regard for the lives of his soldiers and that his battle tactics led to excessive casualties.{{sfnp|Cobban|1963|p=19}}{{sfnp|Conner|2004|pp=62, 105-07}}

Critics also cite Napoleon's exploitation of conquered territories.{{sfnp|McLynn|1997|p=665}} To finance his wars, Napoleon increased taxes and levies of troops from annexed territories and satellite states.{{sfnp|Conner|2004|pp=81-82}}{{sfnp|Cobban|1963|p=29, 46}} He also introduced discriminatory tariff policies which promoted French trade at the expense of allies and satellite states.{{sfnp|Cobban|1963|p=52}} He institutionalized plunder: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]] for a grand central museum; an example which would later be followed by others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dodman |first=Benjamin |date=7 May 2021 |title='Glory of arms and art': Napoleonic plunder and the birth of national museums |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210507-glory-of-arms-and-art-napoleonic-plunder-and-the-birth-of-national-museums |access-date=5 December 2023 |website=[[France 24]] |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109005739/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210507-glory-of-arms-and-art-napoleonic-plunder-and-the-birth-of-national-museums |url-status=live}}</ref>

Many historians have criticized Napoleon's authoritarian rule, especially after 1807, which included censorship, the closure of independent newspapers, the bypassing of direct elections and representative government, the dismissal of judges showing independence, and the exile of critics of the regime.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2015a|pp=574-76, 582-84}}{{sfnp|Conner|2004|pp=32-34}}{{sfnp|Bell|2015|p=52}} Historians also blame Napoleon for reducing the civil rights of women, children and people of colour, and reintroducing the legal penalties of [[civil death]] and confiscation of property.{{sfnp|Dwyer|2015a|pp=578, 584}}{{sfnp|Conner|2004|pp=32-34}}{{sfnp|Cobban|1963|p=27-28}} His reintroduction of an hereditary monarchy and nobility remains controversial.{{sfnp|Conner|2004|p=49}}{{sfnp|Dwyer|2015a|pp=579-84}} His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's colonies in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean adversely affect his reputation.<ref name="Repa22">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4491668.stm |last=Repa |first=Jan |date=2 December 2005 |title=Furore over Austerlitz ceremony | work=[[BBC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420234710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4491668.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56977769 | title=Napoleon's incendiary legacy divides France 200 years on | first=Lucy | last=Williamson | work=[[BBC News]] | date=4 May 2021}}</ref>