Editing Meditation (section)

== Effects ==
{{Main|Effects of meditation}}

Research on the processes and [[effects of meditation]] is a subfield of [[Neurology|neurological]] research.<ref name=goyal/> Modern scientific techniques, such as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] and [[electroencephalography]], were used to observe neurological responses during meditation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Kieran C.R. |last2=Nijeboer |first2=Savannah |last3=Dixon |first3=Matthew L. |last4=Floman |first4=James L. |last5=Ellamil |first5=Melissa |last6=Rumak |first6=Samuel P. |last7=Sedlmeier |first7=Peter |last8=Christoff |first8=Kalina |title=Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |volume=43 |pages=48–73 |year=2014 |pmid=24705269 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016 |s2cid=207090878 }}</ref>  Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research,<ref name=goyal/><ref name="VanDam">{{cite journal |last1=Van Dam |first1=Nicholas T. |last2=van Vugt |first2=Marieke K. |last3=Vago |first3=David R. |last4=Schmalzl |first4=Laura |last5=Saron |first5=Clifford D. |last6=Olendzki |first6=Andrew |last7=Meissner |first7=Ted |last8=Lazar |first8=Sara W. |last9=Kerr |first9=Catherine E. |last10=Gorchov |first10=Jolie |last11=Fox |first11=Kieran C. R. |last12=Field |first12=Brent A. |last13=Britton |first13=Willoughby B. |last14=Brefczynski-Lewis |first14=Julie A. |last15=Meyer |first15=David E. |title=Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |date=January 2018 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=36–61 |doi=10.1177/1745691617709589 |pmid=29016274 |pmc=5758421 }}</ref><ref name="stetka">{{cite journal |last1=Stetka |first1=Bret |title=Where's the Proof that Mindfulness Really Works? |journal=Scientific American Mind |date=7 December 2017 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=20–23 |doi=10.1038/scientificamericanmind0118-20 }}</ref> including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reiterated Concerns and Further Challenges for Mindfulness and Meditation Research: A Reply to Davidson and Dahl |first1=Nicholas T. |last1=Van Dam |first2=Marieke K. |last2=van Vugt |first3=David R. |last3=Vago |first4=Laura |last4=Schmalzl |first5=Clifford D. |last5=Saron |first6=Andrew |last6=Olendzki |first7=Ted |last7=Meissner |first8=Sara W. |last8=Lazar |first9=Jolie |last9=Gorchov |first10=Kieran C.R. |last10=Fox |first11=Brent A. |last11=Field |first12=Willoughby B. |last12=Britton |first13=Julie A. |last13=Brefczynski-Lewis |first14=David E. |last14=Meyer |date=10 October 2017 |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=66–69 |doi=10.1177/1745691617727529 |pmid=29016240 |pmc=5817993}}</ref>

Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, [[stress hormone]]s, [[Lactic acid|lactate]] levels, and [[sympathetic nervous system]] activity (associated with the [[fight-or-flight response]]), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Holen, Are |author1-link=Are Holen |editor1-last=Eifring |editor1-first=Halvor |title=Asian Traditions of Meditation |date=2016 |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press|University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-7667-8 |page=233 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xvLGDwAAQBAJ&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA233 |access-date=2 July 2021 |chapter=The Science of Meditation |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095148/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Asian_Traditions_of_Meditation/xvLGDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA233&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barušs |first1=Imants |title=Authentic Knowing: The Convergence of Science and Spiritual Aspiration |date=1996 |publisher=[[Purdue University Press]] |location=West Lafayette, Indiana |isbn=978-1-55753-084-4 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ui9u6SLcoEC&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA66 |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095242/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Authentic_Knowing/-ui9u6SLcoEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA66&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours.{{sfn|Benson|Klipper|2000|pp=66–72}} For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usual [[beta wave|beta]] (seen in waking activity) or [[alpha wave|alpha]] (seen in normal relaxation) to much slower [[delta wave|delta]] and [[theta wave]]s".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blackmore |first1=Susan |title=Consciousness: a Very Short Introduction |date=14 September 2017 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, NY, United States of America |isbn=978-0-19-879473-8 |page=115 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ83DwAAQBAJ&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA115 |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095245/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Consciousness_a_Very_Short_Introduction/kZ83DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=meditation+oxygen+inpublisher:university+inpublisher:press&pg=PA115&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref>

Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.<ref name=goyal/> There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.<ref name=goyal/>

Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on [[empathy]], [[compassion]], and [[prosocial]] behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s12671-017-0841-8 | pmid=30100929 | pmc=6081743 | title=A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors | year=2017 | journal=Mindfulness | volume=9 | issue=3 | pages=708–24 | last1=Luberto | first1=Christina M. | last2=Shinday | first2=Nina | last3=Song | first3=Rhayun | last4=Philpotts | first4=Lisa L. | last5=Park | first5=Elyse R. | last6=Fricchione | first6=Gregory L. | last7=Yeh | first7=Gloria Y.}}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source|reason=I think the article is at high risk of biases: one of the main reasons is that most of the studies considered lack a placebo group|date=August 2020}} However, a meta-review published on ''[[Scientific Reports]]'' showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kreplin |first1=Ute |last2=Farias |first2=Miguel |last3=Brazil |first3=Inti A. |title=The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 February 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=2403 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z |pmid=29402955 |pmc=5799363 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.2403K }}</ref>

Meditation has also been found to support the development of psychological resilience. Regular practice can help individuals manage chronic stress, trauma, and emotional challenges by fostering greater emotional regulation, reducing rumination, and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.<ref>Southwick, S.M., & Charney, D.S. (2012). Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges. Cambridge University Press.</ref>