Editing Zooarchaeology (section)

==Techniques==
===Taphonomy===
One of the issues to which zooarchaeologists pay close attention is [[taphonomy]].<ref name="Landon2005" /> Techniques used in the study of taphonomy include researching how items are buried and deposited at an archaeological site, what the conditions are that aid in the preservation of these items, and how these items get destroyed, all a part of what is referred to by archaeologist [[Michael Brian Schiffer]] as [[behavioral archaeology]].<ref name="Landon2005" /> One important aspect of taphonomy is assessing how a specimen became damaged; understanding the taphonomy of a [[faunal assemblage]] can explain how and why bones were damaged.<ref name="Broughton2016">{{cite book |last1=Broughton |first1=Jack |last2=Miller |first2=Shawn |title=Zooarchaeology and Field Ecology: A Photographic Atlas |date=2016 |publisher=University of Utah Press}}</ref> One source of damage to animal bones is humans.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|169}} Cut marks on animal bones provide evidence for [[butchering]].<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|169}} Fractures, such as by percussion impact and [[spiral fracture]] on a bone can suggest that it was processed by humans for its marrow, minerals, and nutrients.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|170}} Other human processes that affect bones include burning<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|171}} and damage from archaeological excavations.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|178}} Non-human damage to bones includes interspecies damage,<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|173}} damage from [[Raptor (bird)|raptor]]s and [[Scavenger|scavengers]],<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|173}} damage from [[rodent]]s,<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|175}} damage from [[fungi]],<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|176}} environmental [[weathering]],<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|176}} and [[polishing]].<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|176}} Distinguishing different types of damage to animal bones is a tedious and complex process that requires background in multiple scientific fields.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|169}} Some of the physical damage on bones can be seen with the naked eye, but a lens with 10x magnification and good lighting is necessary for seeing most damage.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|169}}

===Identification and taxonomy===
Identification is integral to the archaeological analysis of animal remains.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|1}} Identification of animal remains requires a combination of [[anatomy]], [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], and studies of archaeological context.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|1}} The ability to identify a piece of bone requires knowing what element (bone in the body) it is, and to what animal the bone belongs.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|1}} The latter is referred to as [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], which is used to sort animals into different groups.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|1}} Zooarchaeology uses [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnean]] nomenclature, which includes varying degrees of specificity in regards to the species.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|2}} Linnaean nomenclature ([[Linnaean taxonomy]]) is used because it allows archaeologists to identify and show the genetic and morphological relationships between species.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|2}} These relationships are based on [[species]] [[evolution]], which can often be subject to interpretation.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|4}} While more specific identification is preferable, it is better to be less specific in the identification rather than identify a specimen incorrectly.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|2}} When examining animal remains, it is common that there are bones that are too small or too damaged to be able to accurately identify it.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|3}} Archaeological context can be used to help with assumptions about species identification.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|3}} Skeletal classification is the other half of properly identifying animal remains.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|1}} Zoological osteology is useful to zooarchaeology because certain morphological aspects of a bone are associated with particular periods of growth, which can help narrow down the age the specimen was at death.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|9}} The analysis of teeth require a slightly different approach than bone, but retain the same level of importance when it comes to analysis.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|9}} The wear pattern and tooth [[morphology (archaeology)|morphology]] provides information about a species diet and age; the enamel also has biochemical remains of what the animal ate.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|9}} While animal remains can include more than just bones and teeth, the nature of things like hair and muscle cause it to deteriorate quickly after death, leaving the skeleton behind; this is why most of zooarchaeology revolves around skeletal morphology.<ref name="Broughton2016" />{{rp|6}} Laboratory analysis can include comparing the skeletons found on site with previously identified lab specimens.<ref name="Landon2005" /> This not only helps to identify what the animal is, but also whether the animal was domesticated or not.<ref name="Landon2005" />

===Genetic analysis===
[[Genetics|Genetic analysis]] using [[ancient DNA]] is an important tool used by zooarchaeologists. Genetic history of an animal can give information on population movement over time and environmental adaptations necessary to live in an area.<ref name="Kaestle">{{cite journal |last1=Kaestle |first1=Frederika A. |last2=Horsburgh |first2=K. Ann |title=Ancient DNA in Anthropology: Methods, Applications, and Ethics |journal=Yearbook of Physical Anthropology |date=2002 |volume=45 |pages=92–130|doi=10.1002/ajpa.10179 |pmid=12653310 |doi-access= }}</ref>{{rp|103}} It can also give context to how animals may or may not have been domesticated over time by a group of people.<ref name="Kaestle" />{{rp|104}} Ancient DNA is critical to the genetic analysis of animals remains. Whereas modern DNA has very long fragments in samples, ancient DNA has very short fragments, making it very easily contaminated.<ref name="Kaestle" />{{rp|94}} The extraction and sampling of ancient DNA requires highly specialized training, as well as intensive protocol to prevent it from being contaminated by modern DNA.<ref name="Lee">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Esther J. |last2=Merriwether |first2=D. Andrew |last3=Kasparov |first3=Alexei K. |last4=Nikolskiy |first4=Pavel A. |last5=Sotnikova |first5=Marina V. |last6=Pavlova |first6=Elena Yu |last7=Pitulko |first7=Vladimir V. |title=Ancient DNA Analysis of the Oldest Canid Species from the Siberian Arctic and Genetic Contribution to the Domestic Dog |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2015 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=e0125759 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125759 |pmid=26018528 |pmc=4446326 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1025759L |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|5}} The paper :Ancient DNA Analysis of the Oldest Canid Species from the Siberian Arctic and Genetic Contribution to the Domestic Dog" by Lee et al. gives a description of claws and teeth were sampled for ancient DNA. In a facility specially designed for ancient DNA extraction, with the use of [[personal protective equipment]] and regular bleaching of surfaces and tools, the claws and teeth were wiped with bleach to destroy all modern DNA on the surface, and were then drilled into a powder. The DNA fragments were extracted from the bone powder using an ancient DNA extraction protocol. After using several processes to replicate the DNA fragments and verify the results ([[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]] and [[gel electrophoresis]]), the ancient DNA from the bone powder was sequenced and then analyzed.<ref name="Lee" />{{rp|5}}

===ZooMS===
With [[ZooMS]] analysis (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), the animal species behind a bone fragment or bone artifact can be determined even when no morphological traits survive. The method makes use of interspecies differences in the structure of [[collagen]].{{Cn|date=March 2024}}

===Quantification===
Yet another technique zooarchaeologists use is [[Quantification (science)|quantification]].<ref name="Landon2005" /> They make interpretations based on the number and size of the faunal remains.<ref name="Landon2005" /> These interpretations include how important different animals might have been to the diet.<ref name="Landon2005" />