Editing Zhang Heng (section)

==Literature and poetry==
{{further|Chinese literature|Society and culture of the Han dynasty}}
[[Image:QueenMotherOfTheWest-Earthenware-EasternHanDynasty-ROM-May8-08.png|thumb|left|200px|An Eastern Han [[earthenware]] figurine of the [[Queen Mother of the West]]. Zhang fantasized about her in his "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery" ({{lang|zh|思玄賦}}), yet the pleasures of the flesh and [[immortality]] that she could offer were not tempting enough to sway his heart which was set elsewhere.<ref>Loewe (2005), 37.</ref>]]
While working for the central court, Zhang Heng had access to a variety of written materials located in the Archives of the Eastern Pavilion.<ref name="harper 1987 262">Harper (1987), 262.</ref> Zhang read many of the great works of history in his day and claimed he had found ten instances where the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]] (145–90&nbsp;BC) and the ''[[Book of Han]]'' by [[Ban Gu]] (AD&nbsp;32–92) differed from other ancient texts that were available to him.<ref name="crespigny 2007 1049"/><ref name="lu 1995 57">Lu (1995), 57.</ref> His account was preserved and recorded in the 5th-century text of the ''[[Book of Later Han]]'' by [[Fan Ye (historian)|Fan Ye]] (398–445).<ref name="lu 1995 57"/> His [[Rhapsody (music)|rhapsodies]] and other literary works displayed a deep knowledge of classic texts, [[Chinese philosophy]], and [[Twenty-Four Histories|histories]].<ref name="crespigny 2007 1049"/> He also compiled a commentary on the ''Taixuan'' ({{lang|zh|太玄}}, "Great Mystery") by the [[Taoism|Daoist]] author [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong]] (53&nbsp;BC–AD&nbsp;18).<ref name="yan 2007 127"/><ref name="xiao knechtges 1996 398"/><ref name="crespigny 2007 1050"/>

[[Xiao Tong]] (501–531), a [[crown prince]] of the [[Liang dynasty]] (502–557), immortalized several of Zhang's works in his literary anthology [[Wen Xuan|''Selections of Refined Literature'']]. Zhang's [[Fu (poetry)|''fu'' rhapsodies]] include "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" (''Xī jīng fù'' {{lang|zh|西京賦}}), "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody" (''Dōng jīng fù'' {{lang|zh|東京賦}}), "Southern Capital Rhapsody" (''Nán dū fù'' {{lang|zh|南都賦}}), "Rhapsody on Contemplating the Mystery" (''Sī xuán fù'' {{lang|zh|思玄賦}}), and ''[[Return to the Field]]''.<ref name="lewis 2006 184">Lewis (2006), 184.</ref> The latter fuses [[Daoism|Daoist]] ideas with [[Confucianism]] and was a precursor to later Chinese metaphysical nature poetry, according to Liu Wu-chi.<ref name="liu 1990 54">Liu (1990), 54.</ref> A set of four short lyric poems entitled ''Lyric Poems on Four Sorrows'' (''Sì chóu shī'' {{lang|zh|四愁詩}}), is also included with Zhang's preface. This set constitutes some of the earliest heptasyllabic ''shi'' [[Chinese poetry]] written.<ref name="neinhauser 1986 212">Neinhauser et al. (1986), 212.</ref><ref name="mair 2001 251">Mair (2001), 251.</ref> While still in Luoyang, Zhang became inspired to write his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" and "Eastern Metropolis Rhapsody", which were based on the "Rhapsody on the Two Capitals" by the historian Ban Gu.<ref name="crespigny 2007 1049"/> Zhang's work was similar to Ban's, although the latter fully praised the contemporaneous Eastern Han regime while Zhang provided a warning that it could suffer the same fate as the Western Han if it too declined into a state of decadence and moral depravity.<ref name="crespigny 2007 1049"/> These two works satirized and criticized what he saw as the excessive luxury of the upper classes.<ref name="neinhauser 1986 211"/> Zhang's "Southern Capital Rhapsody" commemorated his home city of Nanyang, home of the restorer of the Han dynasty, Guangwu.<ref name="crespigny 2007 1049"/>

In Zhang Heng's poem "Four Sorrows", he laments that he is unable to woo a beautiful woman due to the impediment of mountains, snows and rivers.<ref name="xiao knechtges 1996 398"/><ref name="crespigny 2007 1050"/> Scholars Rafe de Crespigny and David R. Knechtges claim that Zhang wrote this as an innuendo hinting at his inability to keep in contact with the emperor, hindered by unworthy rivals and petty men.<ref name="xiao knechtges 1996 398"/><ref name="crespigny 2007 1050">Crespigny (2007), 1050.</ref> This poem is one of the first in China to have seven words per line.<ref name="neinhauser 1986 212"/> His "Four Sorrows" reads:
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| footer = A Western Han [[terracotta]] figurine of a serving lady and Han ceramic figures of women. In his poetry, Zhang Heng expressed his affinity for gracious and commendable women. As well as being a painter, Zhang also crafted figurine sculptures similar to this one.<ref name="yan 2007 128"/>
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{{Verse translation | italicsoff = yes | lang = zh
|我所思兮在太山
欲往從之樑父艱
側身東望涕沾翰
美人贈我金錯刀
何以報之英瓊瑤
路遠莫致倚逍遙
何爲懷憂心煩勞
|In Taishan stays my dear sweetheart,
But Liangfu keeps us long apart;
Looking east, I find tears start.
She gives me a sword to my delight;
A jade I give her as requite.
I'm at a loss as she is out of sight;
Why should I trouble myself all night?
}}

In another poem of his called "Stabilizing the Passions" (''Dìng qíng fù'' 定情賦)—preserved in a [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) encyclopedia, but referred to earlier by [[Tao Yuanming|Tao Qian]] (365–427) in praise of Zhang's lyrical minimalism—Zhang displays his admiration for an attractive and exemplary woman.<ref name="hightower 1954 170 171">Hightower (1954), 170–171.</ref> This simpler type of ''fu'' poem influenced later works by the prominent official and scholar [[Cai Yong]] (132–192).<ref name="neinhauser 1986 212"/> Zhang wrote:

{{Verse translation | italicsoff = yes | lang = zh
|夫何妖女之淑麗
光華豔而秀容
斷當時而呈美
冠朋匹而無雙
|Ah, the chaste beauty of this alluring woman!
She shines with flowery charms and blooming face.
She is unique among all her contemporaries.
She is without a peer among her comrades.
}}
[[Image:Earthenware architecture models, Eastern Han Dynasty, 4.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Eastern Han tomb models of watchtowers; the one on the left has crossbowmen in the top balcony. Zhang wrote that Western Han emperors were entertained by displays of archery from the balconies of towers along Chang'an's Kunming Lake.]]

Zhang's long lyrical poems also revealed a great amount of information on urban layout and basic geography. His rhapsody "Sir Based-On-Nothing" provides details on terrain, palaces, hunting parks, markets, and prominent buildings of [[Chang'an]], the Western Han capital.<ref name="neinhauser 1986 211"/><ref name="lewis 2006 184"/> Exemplifying his attention to detail, his rhapsody on Nanyang described gardens filled with spring garlic, summer [[bamboo shoot]]s, autumn leeks, winter rape-turnips, [[perilla]], [[tetradium|evodia]], and purple ginger.<ref>Knechtges (1997), 232.</ref> Along with [[Sima Xiangru]] (179–117&nbsp;BC), Zhang listed a variety of animals and hunting game inhabiting the park, which were divided in the northern and southern portions of the park according to where the animals had originally come from: [[Northern and southern China|northern or southern China]].<ref>Schafer (1968), 329–330.</ref> Somewhat similar to the description of Sima Xiangru, Zhang described the Western Han emperors and their entourage enjoying boat outings, water plays, fishing, and displays of archery targeting birds and other animals with stringed arrows from the tops of [[:Image:Earthenware architecture models, Eastern Han Dynasty, 1.JPG|tall towers]] along Chang'an's Kunming Lake.<ref name="bulling 1962 312">Bulling (1962), 312 & 314.</ref> The focus of Zhang's writing on specific places and their terrain, society, people, and their customs could also be seen as early attempts of [[ethnographic]] categorization.<ref name="lewis 2006 238">Lewis (2006), 238.</ref> In his poem "Xijing fu", Zhang shows that he was aware of the new foreign religion of [[Buddhism]], introduced via the [[Silk Road]], as well as the legend of the birth of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] with the vision of the [[white elephant]] bringing about conception.<ref>Wu (1986), 271–272.</ref> In his "Western Metropolis Rhapsody" ({{lang|zh|西京賦}}), Zhang described court entertainments such as ''juedi'' ({{lang|zh|角抵}}), a form of theatrical wrestling accompanied by music in which participants butted heads with bull horn masks.<ref name="loewe 1990 142 144">Loewe (1990), 142–144.</ref>

[[Image:Gentlemen in conversation, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Eastern Han tomb painting of two men engrossed in conversation; Zhang's ''shelun'' or hypothetical discourse, involved a written dialogue between imaginary or real persons to demonstrate how one could lead an exemplary life]]

With his "Responding to Criticism" (''Ying jian'' {{lang|zh|應間}}), a work modeled on [[Yang Xiong (author)|Yang Xiong's]] "Justification Against Ridicule",<ref>Fraser (2014): 370.</ref> Zhang was an early writer and proponent of the Chinese literary genre ''shelun'', or hypothetical discourse. Authors of this genre created a written dialogue between themselves and an imaginary person (or a real person of their entourage or association); the latter poses questions to the author on how to lead a successful life.<ref name="declercq 1998 1-4">Declercq (1998), 1–4.</ref> He also used it as a means to criticize himself for failing to obtain high office, but coming to the conclusion that the true gentleman displays virtue instead of greed for power.<ref name="crespigny 2007 1050"/> In this work, Dominik Declercq asserts that the person urging Zhang to advance his career in a time of government corruption most likely represented the eunuchs or [[Liang Na|Empress Liang]]'s (116–150) powerful relatives in the [[Liang (surname)|Liang clan]].<ref name="declercq 1998 65"/> Declercq states that these two groups would have been "anxious to know whether this famous scholar could be lured over to their side", but Zhang flatly rejected such an alignment by declaring in this politically charged piece of literature that his gentlemanly quest for virtue trumped any desire of his for power.<ref>Declercq (1998), 65–66.</ref>

Zhang wrote about the various love affairs of emperors dissatisfied with the imperial harem, going out into the city incognito to seek out prostitutes and sing-song girls. This was seen as a general criticism of the Eastern Han emperors and their imperial favorites, guised in the criticism of earlier Western Han emperors.<ref name="lewis 2006 184-185">Lewis (2006), 184–185.</ref> Besides criticizing the Western Han emperors for lavish decadence, Zhang also pointed out that their behavior and ceremonies did not properly conform with the Chinese cyclical beliefs in [[yin and yang]].<ref>Bulling (1962), 314–315.</ref> In a poem criticizing the previous Western Han dynasty, Zhang wrote:

{{Verse translation | italicsoff = yes | lang = zh
|得之者強，
據之者久。
流長則難竭，
柢深則難朽。
故奢泰肆情，
馨烈彌茂。
|Those who won this territory were strong;
Those who depended on it endured.
When a stream is long, its water is not easily exhausted.
When roots are deep, they do not rot easily.
Therefore, as extravagance and ostentation were given free rein,
The odor became pungent and increasingly fulsome.
}}
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| footer = A late [[Eastern Han]] (25–220 AD) [[Chinese painting|Chinese tomb mural]] showing lively scenes of a banquet (''yànyǐn'' {{lang|zh|宴飲}}), dance and music (''wǔyuè'' {{lang|zh|舞樂}}), acrobatics (''bǎixì'' {{lang|zh|百戲}}), and wrestling (''xiāngbū'' {{lang|zh|相扑}}), [[c:Category:Dahuting Tomb murals|from the Dahuting Tomb]], on the southern bank of the [[Suihe River]] in [[Zhengzhou]], [[Henan province]], China (just west of [[Xi County, Henan|Xi County]])
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